the  essentials  of 
languageaf  grammar 


ALBERT  LE  ROYBARTLETT 


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SILVER,  BIIRDETt  AND  COMPANY 


EDUCATION  DEPT 


The  Silver  Series  of  Language  Books 


The  Essentials 

of 

Language  and  Grammar 


Albert  LeRoy  Bartlett,  A.M. 


SILVER,   BURDETT   AND   COMPANY 

New  York  .  .  .  BOSTON  .  .  .  Chicago 

1899 


EDUCAT-IPIJ^PEFT.,  '•', 

By  Silver,  Burdett  and  Company 


INTRODUCTION. 

If,  as  Bacon  says,  "  A  ^vise  questioning  is  the  half-way 
towards  knowledge,"  a  wise  questioner  is  the  best  guide  to 
that  destination.  Any  text-book  will  fail  of  its  highest  ser- 
vice unless  the  wise  questioning  of  the  teacher,  his  tactful 
adaptation  of  its  material  to  the  condition  of  his  pupils,  and 
his  sympathetic  fidelity  to  the  methods  and  spirit  of  the 
book,  give  it  life  and  make  it  a  moving  influence. 

I  have  sought  to  write  a  lesson  book,  illustrating,  explain- 
ing, and  defining  the  grammatical  facts  about  words,  and 
the  fundamental  principles  upon  which  the  construction  of 
an  English  sentence  is  based ;  to  add  thereto  such  analyses  of 
a  few  selections  from  good  American  authors,  as  shall  give  to 
pupils  some  insight  into  the  fulness  of  beauty  and  meaning 
contained  in  what  we  term  good  literature,  and  shall  suggest 
to  teachers  methods  that  may  be  used  in  the  study  of  other 
selections ;  and  to  outline  some  plans  for  training  the  pupils 
to  write  English  easily,  correctly,  and  gracefully. 

The  following  simple  exercises  mil  form  a  useful  and 
strengthening  accompaniment  to  all  language  work : 

1.  In  order  to  express  thoughts  the  pwpil  must  have  that 
wherewith  he  may  express  them — a  vocabulary  of  words  in 
good  usage.  Such  a  vocabulary  may  be  made  a  growing 
wndy  ultimately^  a  fuU  one,  by  two  methods : 

I.  By  making  a  list  of  such  unfamiliar  words  as  may 
ocdur  in  eacli  chapter,  studying  them  as  the  dictionary  de- 
fines them  and  illustrates  their  use,  and  then  using  them  in 

M69881 


INTRODUCTION. 


sentences.   Some  one  has  said  that  any  word  belongs  to  a  man 
who  has  used  it  correctly  three  times. 

II.  By  the  recasting  of  sentences :  first,  by  substituting 
synonyms  for  as  many  words  as  possible  in  the  sentences ; 
second,  by  using  as  many  antonyms  as  possible.  This  work 
should  be  a  regular  practice  exercise  from  the  beginning  of 
the  study  of  language,  starting,  of  course,  with  very  simple 
beginnings,  and  advancing  by  easy  and  very  gradual  stages 
to  more  difficult  exercises. 

2.  The  following  jplan  for  work  in  com^jposition  may  he 
followed : 

I.  The  writing  of  single  sentences.  The  leading  group 
of  words  in  a  sentence  is  given,  or  suggestive  words  that 
occur  therein.  This  is  called  a  skeleton  sentence.  About 
this  group  of  words  the  pupils,  one  after  another,  construct 
each  a  sentence,  giving  them  orally  or  writing  them  on  the 
board.  Such  sentences  should  be  the  hest  thoughts  of  the 
pupils,  expressed  in  correct  form.  Criticism  of  these  sen- 
tences follows,  whatever  is  good  being  noticed  and  whatever 
is  faulty  being  kindly  corrected.  When  the  pupils  have  ac- 
quired grace  and  facility  in  writing  sentences,  then  follows : 

II.  The  construction  of  the  paragraph.  A  subject  is 
discussed  orally,  then  suggestive  words  for  two  or  three 
sentences  are  placed  on  the  board,  the  pupils  filling  out  these 
skeletons  as  above.  The  advance  work  is  not  only  in  be- 
coming familiar  with  the  form  of  the  paragraph,  but  in 
gaining  the  power  of  arranging  sentences,  so  that  their 
sequence  shall  be  orderly  and  easy. 

III.  A  further  useful   exercise  in   composition  is   the 


INTRODUCTION. 


expansion  of  a  single  sentence  into  a  paragraph,  or  of  a 
succinct  paragraph  into  a  fuller  one,  and  the  reverse — the 
contraction  of  a  paragraph  into  a  sentence,  and  of  a  long 
paragraph  into  a  shorter  one. 

lY .  Last,  comes  the  planning  of  a  studied  composition,  as 
is  carefully  outlined  in  Chapter  L. 

The  illustrative  sentences  and  selections  in  this  book  have 
been  ^vritten  and  chosen  with  two  purposes :  first — that  they 
shall  illustrate  clearly  the  grammatical  principle  that  is 
being  discussed,  and  second — that  they  shall  have  literary 
value  and  be  in  themselves  the  teachers  of  something.  The 
pupil,  therefore,  should  be  led  to  appreciate  the  lesson  or  the 
beauty  of  the  thought,  as  well  as  to  comprehend  the  gram- 
matical principle  Avhich  it  illustrates. 

It  is  only  by  constant  practice  that  the  power  of  discrim- 
ination becomes  keen,  only  by  repetition  that  the  principles 
of  grammatical  construction  become  familiar,  and  only  by 
constant  and  careful  exercise  that  the  use  of  good  English 
becomes  habitual.  He  who  teaches  the  essentials  of  English 
in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  this  introduction  and  of  the 
purpose  with  which  this  book  has  been  Avritten  will  find  that 
he  has  taught  a  thousand  graces  in  addition  to  that  of  cor- 
rect speech.  He  will  have  heard  and  obeyed  the  bidding  of 
those  strong  lines  of  Emerson's — 

Go,  speed  the  stars  of  thought 

On  to  their  shining  goals: 
The  sower  scatters  broad  his  seed, 
The  wheat  thou  strew'st  be  souls. 

— Albert  Le  Koy  Bartlett. 
Silver  Hill, 

Haverhill,  Massachusetts. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Archive 

in  2008  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/det.ails/essentialsoflangOOalberich 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTBB  PAGE 

I.    The  Two  Parts  of  a  Sentence      ....      13 
II.    The  Four  Kinds  of  Sentences.    Review  of  Sub- 
ject AND  Predicate.     "The  Sparrows,"  by 
Celia  Thaxter 16 

III.  Words  as  Parts  of  Speech.    A  Little  Study  of 

Words 2% 

IV.  The  Noun  a  Word  That  Names      .         ...  27 
V.    Selection  FOR  Literary  Analysis  :     "The  Beg- 
gar," BY  James  Russell  Lowell     ...  39 

VI.  Common  and  Proper  Nouns.  The  Franconia 
Road.  "The  Great  Stone  Face,"  by  Na- 
thaniel Hawthorne 33 

VII.    Surnames  and  Christian  Names.    The  Origin  of 

Surnames 36 

VIII.    A   Story  from   Longfellow's    "  The   Song  of 

Hiawatha" 39 

IX.    Review 42 

X.    The  Writing  OF  Dates.    "The  Months."    "Mar- 
jorie's  Almanac,"    by   Thomas    Bailey  Al- 

DRICH 43 

XI.    A  Few  Common  Abbreviations  and  Contractions      49 
XII.    The  Parts  of  a  Letter.     A  Letter  from  Phil- 
lips Brooks  .        . 52 

XIII.  Letter- Writing,  with  Skeleton  Letters     .        .      66 

XIV.  Number  :    the  Singular  and  Plural  Forms  of 

Nouns 69 

XV.    The  Number  of  Nouns,  continued      ...  74 
XVI.    Selections  for  Study  :  The  Coming  of  the  Sand- 
piper ;    The  Sandpiper's  Nest  ;    The  Sand- 
piper, by  Celia  Thaxter 76 

XVII.    The  Possessive  Form  of  Nouns      ....  81 

XVIII.    The  Paragraph 85 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 

XXIII. 

XXIV. 

XXV. 

XXVI. 

XXVII. 

XXVIII. 

XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 
XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVI. 

XXXVII. 

XXXVIII. 

XXXIX. 

XL. 

XLI. 


XLII. 
XLIII. 
XLIV. 

XLV. 


I'AGE 

The  Gender  of  Nouns       .        .        .        .        .87 

Review 89 

The  Adjective            91 

The  Careful  Use  of  Adjectives     ...  95 

The  Verb 98 

The  Correct  Usage  of  Certain  Verbs   .        .  102 

The  Adverb 105 

The  Personal  Pronoun 109 

The  Personal  Pronoun,  continued          .        .111 
Sentences  for  the  Study  of  Personal  Pro- 
nouns        114 

The  Preposition 115 

The  Conjunction 120 

The  Interjection 123 

Review.  Extract  from  "Master  Sky- 
lark"        125 

The  Nominative  Case 127 

The  Agreement  of  a  Verb  with  its  Subject 

Nominative 132 

The  Possessive  Case 134 

The  Objective  Case 137 

The   Adverbial   and   Cognate    Objectives  : 

The  Subject  of  an  Infinitive  .        .        .  143 
The  Appositive  Use  of  Nouns           .        .        .146 

Collective,  Abstract,  and  Concrete  Nouns  .  148 

The  Parsing  of  a  Noun 151 

A  Selection  for  Study  and  Memory:  The 
Little  Brook  Builds  his  House,  from 
"The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,"  by  James 

Russell  Lowell            152 

Quotations,  and  How  to  Write  Them     .        .  156 

The  Titles  of  Books,  Essays,  etc.   .        .        .  159 
The  Interrogative  Pronoun     .        .        .        .161 

The  Relative  Pronoun 163 


CONTENTS. 


CONJUNC- 


CHAPTER 

XLVI.    The  Demonstrative  Pronoun        .... 
XLVII.    The  Agreement  of  Pronouns  with  Their  An- 
tecedents        .... 
XLVIII.    The  Declension  of  Pronouns 
XLIX.    The  Parsing  of  a  Pronoun    . 

L.    Some  Plans  for  Composition  Work 

LI.    Phrases  and  Clauses.    The  Phrase 

LII.    Phrases  and  Clauses.    The  Clause 

LIII.    The  Parsing  of  a  Preposition  ;  of  a 

TioN.    Interjections 
LIV.    A  Selection  for  Study  and  Memory:    "The 
Chambered   Nautilus,"   by   Oliver   Wen- 
dell Holmes 

LV,    The    Predicate  and  the  Appositive  Use  of 

Adjectives 

LVI.    The  Comparison  of  Adjectives     .... 
LVII.    The  Parsing  of  an  Adjective       .... 

LVIII.    The  Adverb 

LIX.    The  Comparison  of  Adverbs         .... 
LX.    The  Use  of  Predicate  Adjectives  after  Verbs 

OF  Sensation,  etc 

LXI.    A  Lesson  for  Dictionary  Work  and  for  Dis- 
cussion       

LXII.    The  Use  of  Capital  Letters        .... 
LXin.    The  Correct  Use  of   "Shall"  and  "Will," 
AND  OF  "Should"  and  "Would" 

LXIV.    The  Simple  Sentence 

LXV.    The  Analysis  of  the  Simple  Sentence 

LXVI.    The  Complex  Sentence 

LXVII.    The  Analysis  of  the  Complex  Sentence    . 
LXVIII.    The  Compound  Sentence.    Its  Analysis     . 

LXIX.    Sentences  for  Analysis 

LXX.  A  Selection  for  Study  and  Memory:  "The 
Song  of  the  Chattahoochee,"  by  Sidney 
Lanier 


PAGE 

165 


167 
171 
173 
173 

178 
184 

190 


191 

194 
197 
202 
202 
205 

208 

210 
214 

217 
221 
223 
226 
228 
231 
233 


235 


10 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

LXXI.  The  Tense  of  Verbs 240 

LXXII.  The  Tense  of  Verbs,  continued       .        .        .243 

LXXIII.  The  Mode  of  Verbs 247 

LXXIV.  The  Voice  of  Verbs 249 

LXXV.  Verbs  as  Transitive  or  Intransitive       .        .  251 

LXXVI.  Verb  Forms.    The  Infinitive  Form         .        .  254 

LXXVII.  Verb  Forms.    The  Participle.  .        .        .257 

LXXVIII.  Potential  Verb  Phrases 260 

LXXIX.  The  Conjugation  of  Verbs       ....  262 

LXXX.  The  Parsing  of  a  Verb.     "  Opportunity,"  by 

Edward  Rowland  Sill         ....  273 

LXXXI.  Alphabetical  List  of  Irregular  Verbs  .        .  275 

LXXXII.  A  Study  OF  "  Snow-Bound  "       ....  283 

LXXXIII.  A  Study  of  "  The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal  "      .  288 

LXXXIV.  The  Use  of  Punctuation  Marks       .        .        .  293 

LXXXV.  Selections  for  Dictation,  Parsing,  etc.         .  296 

LXXXVI.  Business  Forms  and  Letters     ....  302 

LXXXVII.  Social  Forms 308 

Index 311 


The  selections  from  ivorhs  puhlislied  iy  Messrs.  Houghton, 
Mifflin  S  Co.  are  used  by  the  kind  permissio7i  of  the  publish- 
ers   and  under  special  arrangements  with  them. 


THE    ESSENTIALS    OF 
LANGUAGE    AND    GEAMMAR 


THE    ESSENTIALS 

OF 

LANGUAGE    AND    GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER    I. 
THE  TWO  PARTS   OF  A  SENTENCE. 

I. 

1.  September  days 

are  beautiful. 

2.  The  orchards 

give  us  ripe  fruits. 

3.  The  garden 

is  bright  with  flowers. 

4.  The  weeds 

grow  tall  along  the  country  roads. 

5.  The  long  school  vacation 

is  over. 

Here  are  five  complete  thoughts  or  sentences.  What  does 
the  first  sentence  tell  us  ?  the  second  ?  the  third  ?  the  fourth  ? 
the  fifth  ? 

About  what  are  we  told  something  in  the  first  sentence  ? 
What  is  told  about  it  ?  About  what  are  we  told  something  in 
the  second  sentence  ?  What  are  we  told  about  it  ?  About 
wliat  are  we  told  something  in  the  third  sentence  ?  What  is 
told  about  it  ?  etc. 


14     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

A  comjplete  thought  expressed  in  words  is  a  sentence. 

The  first  division  of  each  sentence  is  that  about  which 
something  is  told. 

The  second  division  of  each  sentence  is  that  which  is  told 
about  the  fi^st  part. 

What  is  t.ie  first  division  of  each  of  the  above  sentences  ? 

the  second  division  ?  . 
_  II. 

'  1:    Tlie  robins 

.   .^2..;  Yellow  daisies 

^ " '  3'.     The  children 

4.  are  in  the  schoolroom. 

6.  have  flown  away. 

6.  nod  in  the  wind. 

Are  these  complete  thoughts  ?  In  which  do  you  find  the  first 
division  of  a  sentence  ?  In  which  do  you  find  the  second  divi- 
sion of  a  sentence  ?  Make  the  first  a  complete  sentence  by 
telling  something  about  the  robiyis.  Make  the  second  a  com- 
plete sentence.  Make  the  third  a  complete  sentence.  Make 
the  fourth  a  complete  sentence  by  telling'who  are  in  the  school- 
room.    Make  the  fifth  a  complete  sentence.     Make  the  sixth  a 

complete  sentence. 

III. 

1.  The  swallows  chatter  about  their  flight. 

2.  The  maples  will  soon  put  on  their  bright  colors. 
.  3.     The  grass  will  grow  brown. 

4.     The  warm  summer  days  have  gone. 
6.     Each  season  brings  new  pleasures. 

About  what  are  you  told  something  in  the  first  sentence  ? 
What  are  you  told  about  it  ?     About  what  are  you  told  some- 


THE  TWO  PARTS  OF  A   SENTENCE.  15 

thing  in  the  second  sentence  ?  What  are  you  told  about 
it  ?  in  the  third  sentence  ?  the  fourth  sentence  ?  the  fifth 
sentence  ? 

That  about  which  something  is  told  is  the  subject  of  a 
sentence. 

That  which  is  told  about  the  subject  is  the  predicate  of 
a  sentence. 

Find  the  subject  and  predicate  of  each  sentence  in  I^  II., 

and  III. 

lY. 

Find  subjects  and  predicates  in  the  following  quotation: 

The  wind  blows,  the  sun  shines,  the  birds  sing  loud. 
The  blue,  blue  sky  is  decked  with  fleecy,  dappled  cloud ; 
Over  earth's  rejoicing  fields  the  children  dance  and  sing, 
And  the  frogs  pipe  in  chorus,  "  It  is  spring !  it  is  spring !  " 

The  grass  comes,  the  flower  laughs  where  lately  lay  the 

snow ; 

Over  the  breezy  hill-top  hoarsely  calls  the  crow ; 

By  the  flowing  river  the  alder-catkins  swing. 

And   the  sweet   song  sparrow   cries,   "It  is  spring!  it   is 

spring ! " 

^  —From  **  Wild  Geese,"  by  Celia  Thaxter. 

Y. 

Write  from  dictation  the  following    sentences,  drawing  a 
horizontal  line  under  the  subject  of  each  : 

The  winter  lingers  late  in  Norway. 

The   children  wait  long  for  the  singing  birds  and  the 
flowers. 


16     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  people  there  are  very  fond  of  the  little  birds. 

The  fathers  and  mothers  gather  the  grain  from  the  fields 
in  the  autmnn. 

The  children  go  then  into  the  fields  and  glean  what  is  left. 

The  children  save  their  grain  until  December. 

They  make  then  a  Christmas  gift  for  the  birds. 

They  bind  their  gleanings  together  into  a  sheaf. 

They  erect  a  tall  pole  in  front  of  each  house. 

They  tie  their  sheaf  of  grain  to  the  top  of  the  pole. 

The  sparrows  come  from  all  around  to  eat  this  Christmas 
feast. 

CHAPTER    II. 

THE  FOUR  KINDS  OF  SENTENCES.     REVIEW  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

I. 

1.  The  growth  of  a  flower  is  a  wonderful  thing. 

2.  A  little  seed  lies  in  your  hand. 

3.  You  plant  it  in  the  ground. 

4.  A  blade  of  green  soon  breaks  through  the  earth. 

5.  The  green  stalk  bears  leaves. 

6.  A  bud  grows  from  the  stalk. 

Y.     The  bud  opens  and  changes  into  a  beautiful  flower. 

8.  IS'otice  the  wild  flowers. 

9.  Learn  their  names. 

10.  Are  not  the  colors  of  flowers  beautiful? 

11.  "What  flowers  do  you  like  the  best  ? 

12.  How  wonderful  a  flower  is ! 

13.  How  gay  the  poppies  are ! 

14.  How    beautiful    even    the    green    grass 
makes  the  fields! 


THE  FOUR  KINDS  OF  SENTENCES.  .  17 

In  the  above  sentences  thoughts  have  been  expressed  in 
four  different  ways — to  tell  you  something,  to  hid  you  do 
something,  to  ask  questions,  and  to  express  wonder  or  delight. 

A  sentence  that  tells  or  states  something  is  a  declara- 
tive sentence. 

A  sentence  that  commands  or  requests  is  am.  impera- 
tive sentence. 

A  sentence  that  asks  a  question  is  an  interrogative 
sentence. 

A  sentence  that  expresses  strong  feeling,  wonder,  sur- 
prise, delight,  anger,  contempt,  etc.,  is  an  exclamatory 
sentence. 

What  ki7id  of  a  sentence  is  each  of  the  above  sentences  ? 
Why  ?  AVith  what  kind  of  a  letter,  small  or  capital,  does 
each  sentence  begin  ?  What  mark  follows  each  declarative 
sentence  ?  each  imperative  sentence  ?  each  interrogative 
sentence  ?    each  exclamatory  sentence  ? 

The  first  letter  of  a  sentence  should  he  a  capital  letter. 

A  declarative  or  imperative  sentence  should  he  followed 
hy  a  period  (.)/  an  interrogative  sentence  hy  an  interro- 
gation m^ark  {?)  /  and  an  exclamiatory  sentence  hy  an 
exclamation  mark  (/). 

What  is  the  subject  of  each  of  the  first  seven  sentences  ? 
Who  is  told  to  notice  the  wild  flowers  ?  What,  then,  is  the 
subject  of  the  eighth  sentence  ?  Who  is  told  to  learn  their 
names  ?  What,  then,  is  the  subject  of  the  ninth  sentence  ? 
Are  not  what  beautiful  ?  What,  then,  is  the  subject  of  the 
tenth  sentence  ?  What  flowers  does  who  like  the  best  ? 
What  is  wonderful  ?     What  are  gay  ?     What  makes  the  earth 


18     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

beautiful  ?      What,    then,   is    the    subject   of   each   of    these 
sentences  ? 

Note  :  The  teacher  should  have  the  pupil  give  the  com- 
plete subject  in  each  case,  i.e.,  the  growth  of  a  flower,  the 
colors  of  flowers,  even  the  green  grass,  etc.  Then  by  simple 
questions  lead  the  pupils  to  give  the  complete  predicate  of 
each  sentence.  The  blackboard  should  be  freely  used  in  all 
of  these  exercises.  The  eye  is  the  most  direct  road  to  the 
understanding  of  a  child. 

II. 

Make  declarative  sentences,  using  the  following  sub- 
jects:— The  farmers ;  Wild  bees  ;  A  little  plant 

;  The  little  nest ;  Marjorie : 

and  the  foUomng  predicates : hides  in  the  deep, 

sweet  grass.     sleeps  in  every  seed.     are  picking 

apples.    build  nests  in   hollow  trees.     held  four 

blue  eggs. 

Make  imperative  sentences  bidding  the  children  not  to  be 
late  at  school ;  not  to  frighten  the  birds ;  to  be  kind  to  the 
smaller  children ;  to  obey  their  fathers  and  mothers ;  to 
speak  the  truth  always. 

Make  interrogative  sentences  asking  about  the  nearest 
river  or  lake ;  about  birds  in  winter ;  about  school  vacations ; 
about  the  color  of  some  flower ;  about  the  stars. 

Make  exclamatory  sentences  about  the  swiftness  of  the 
birds'  flight ;  about  the  intelligence  of  the  dog ;  about  the 
roaring  of  the  wind ;  about  the  beauty  of  the  frost ;  about 
the  colors  of  the  leaves  in  autumn. 

Note  :  After  each  sentence  has  been  given  orally,  it 
should  be  written  on  the  board  by  one  or  more  pupils,  care 


THE  FOUR  KINDS  OF  SENTENCES.  19 

being  taken  that  the  sentences  begin  with  capital  letters,  and 
are  followed  by  the  proper  punctuation  marks.  Patience  and 
cheerfulness  will  lead  the  children  more  rapidly  and  more 
surely  than  any  sterner  agency  will  drive  them. 

III. 

In  the  following  story  notice  carefully  each  period,  inter- 
rogation mark,  and  exclamation  mark.  Read  each  sentence. 
Does  it  begin  with  a  capital  letter  ?  What  punctuation  mark 
follows  it  ?  What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  it  ?  Why  ?  What 
is  the  subject  of  each  sentence  ?  the  predicate  ?  (The  teacher 
may  well  help  by  questions  the  child  who  fails  to  find  the  sub- 
ject or  predicate. )  What  title  do  you  think  we  may  give  to 
this  story  ? 

A  pair  of  birds  came  to  an  orchard  of  apple  trees  in 
May.  The  trees  were  in  blossom.  How  fragrant  the  or- 
chard was !  The  fields  were  full  of  flowers,  the  grass  was 
groAAang  tall,  and  the  busy  bees  were  humming  from  blos- 
som to  blossom.  The  birds  built  a  nest  in  one  of  the  trees. 
They  sang  sweetly  every  morning.  Who  told  the  little 
birds  to  sing  ?  Perhaps  the  flowers  told  them,  or  the  blue 
sky,  or  the  winds.  They  sang  about  a  nest  with  five  little 
eggs  in  it.  They  sang  about  the  sunshine,  and  the  air  sweet 
with  blossoms. 

A  little  sick  boy  heard  the  songs  of  the  birds,  and  he 
was  happy  and  forgot  his  pain.  His  father  put  a  little  card 
on  the  robins'  tree,  and  the  card  said : 

A  jpair  of  robins  have  hired  this  tree. 

They  pay  their  rent  with  their  songs. 

Do  you  like  to  hear  them  sing  f 


30     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Please  do  not  frighten  them. 

Do  not  disturb  their  nest. 

How  cheerful  their  song  is  ! 

How  sad  their  cries  are  when  they  are  frightened  / 

Note  :     This  story  may  be  used  for  oral  reproduction,  and 
for  dictation  sentences. 

Write  a  story  about  "  The  Birds'  Christmas  Feast  in  Nor- 
way," based  upon  the  dictation  exercises  in  Chapter  I.,  Part  V. 

The  following  selection  is  for  reading  only  : 

The  Sparrows. 

In  the  far-ofP  land  of  Norway, 

Where  the  winter  lingers  late. 
And  long  for  the  singing-birds  and  flowers 

The  little  children  wait ; 

"When  at  last  the  summer  ripens 

And  the  harvest  is  gathered  in, 
And  food  for  the  bleak,  drear  days  to  come 

The  toiling  people  win ; 

Through  all  the  land  the  children 

In  the  golden  field  remain 
Till  their  busy  little  hands  have  gleaned 

A  generous  sheaf  of  grain  ; 

All  the  stalks  by  the  reapers  forgotten 

They  glean  to  the  very  least, 
To  save  till  the  cold  December, 

For  the  sparrows'  Christmas  feast. 


THE  POUR  KINDS  OF  SENTENCES.  21 

And  then  tiu'ougli  the  frost-locked  country 

There  happens  a  wonderful  thing : 
The  sparrows  flock  north,  south,  east,  west, 

For  the  children's  offering. 

Of  a  sudden,  the  day  before  Christmas, 

The  twittering  crowds  arrive. 
And  the  bitter,  mntry  air  at  once 

With  their  chirping  is  alive. 

They  perch  upon  roof  and  gable, 

On  porch  and  fence  and  tree ; 
They  flutter  about  the  windows 

And  peer  in  curiously, 

And  meet  the  eyes  of  the  children 

Who  eagerly  look  out 
With  cheeks  that  bloom  like  roses  red, 

And  greet  them  with  welcoming  shout. 

On  the  joyous  Christmas  morning, 

In  front  of  every  door 
A  tall  pole,  crowned  with  clustering  grain. 

Is  set  the  birds  before. 

And  which  are  the  happier,  truly 

It  >vould  be  hard  to  tell ; 
The  sparrows  who  share  in  the  Christmas  cheer. 

Or  the  children  who  love  them  well. 

How  sweet  that  they  should  remember. 

With  faith  so  full  and  sure, 
That  the  children's  bounty  awaited  them 

The  whole  ^vide  country  o'er  I 


23     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

When  this  pretty  story  was  told  to  me 

By  one  who  had  helped  to  rear 
The  rustling  grain  for  the  merry  birds 

In  l^orway,  many  a  year, 

I  thought  that  our  little  children 

Would  like  to  know  it,  too, 
It  seems  to  me  so  beautiful, 

So  blessed  a  thing  to  do  : 

To  make  God's  innocent  creatures  see 

In  every  child  a  friend. 

And  on  our  faithful  kindness 

So  fearlessly  depend. 

— Celia  Thaxter. 

[Celia  Thaxter,  an  American  poet,  born  in  Portsmouth, 
JSTew  Hampshire,  1835 ;  died  at  the  Isles  of  Shoals,  August 
26,  1894] 

CHAPTER   III. 
WORDS  AS  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

Note  :  This  lesson  may  well  be  used  for  reading  and  for 
conversation  with  the  class.  Its  object  is  to  introduce  the 
parts  of  speech  to  the  pupils^  leaving  them  to  become  more  in- 
timately and  exactly  acquainted  with  them  in  the  lessons  that 
follow. 

I. 

The  pond-lily  floats  quietly  on  the  lake.  Its  roots  live 
in  the  mud,  but  its  beautiful  blossoms  rest  on  the  surface  of 
the  water.     Ah,  how  sweet  its  perfume  is ! 


WORDS  AS  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 


In  a  sentence  each  word  has  its  own  service  to  perform. 
Some  words  are  name-words  ;  some  are  used  to  describe  name- 
words  ;  some  are  used  to  take  the  place  of  name-words  ;  some 
express  action  ;  some  modify  (limit  the  meaning  of)  the  action- 
words  ;  some  show  how  one  word  is  related  to  another ;  some 
connect  words  or  thoughts  ;  some  express  a  feeling. 

1.  A  word  that  is  the  name  of  something  is  a  noun.  Such 
words  are  pond'Hly,  roots,  mud,  Uossoms,  surface,  water,  per- 
fume. 

If  you  mention  the  objects  that  are  in  the  school -room  you 
use  nouns  :  books,  desks,  pictures,  teacher,  map,  boys,  girls. 

2.  A  word  that  describes  a  noun  or  a  word  used  instead  of 
a  noun,  is  an  adjective.     Such  words  are  ieautiful,  sweet. 

Notice  the  adjectives  in  these  groups  of  words  :  good  books, 
small  desks,  beautiful  pictures,  large  map,  helpful  teacher, 
pleasant  boys,  happy  girls. 

Put  these  groups  of  words  in  sentences. 

3.  A  word  that  is  used  in  place  of  a  noun  is  a  pronoun. 
Notice  the  pronouns  in  these  groups  of  words  :  its  beautiful 

blossoms,  its  roots.     In  place  of  what  noun  is  its  used  ? 

4.  A  word  that  tells  what  a  noun  or  pronoun  does  is  a  verb. 
Such  words  are  floats,  live,  rest. 

Notice  the  verbs  in  these  sentences :  The  birds  are  singing 
in  the  apple-trees.  A  beautiful  ship  sailed  on  the  broad,  blue 
sea.     The  ieachev  praises  the  careful  pupil. 

What  are  the  nouns  in  these  sentences  ?  the  adjectives  ? 

5.  A  word  that  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb  is  an  advert. 
Such  words  are  quietly,  softly,  rapidly,  gladly. 

Insert  softly,  rapidly,  and  gladly,  in  the  sentences  in  No.  4. 


24     TEE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANOUAQE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

6.  A  word  that  shows  how  one  word  is  related  to  another  is 
2k  preposition.     Such  words  are  on,  in,  of. 

Notice  the  prepositions  in  these  groups  of  words  :  sings  to 
his  mate,  sailed  on  the  river,  the  work  of  the  pupils. 
Put  these  groups  of  words  in  sentences. 

7.  A  word  that  connects  one  word  or  thought  to  another  is 
a  conjunction. 

Notice  the  conjunctions  in  these  groups  of  words :  the  red 
a7id  gold  leaves  of  the  maple  ;  praised  him  because  he  studied  ; 
played  ttntil  it  was  dark. 

•Put  these  groups  of  words  into  sentences. 

8.  A  word  that  expresses  strong  feeling  is  an  interjection. 
Notice  the    interjections  in  the  following  sentences  :    Ah, 

how  sweet  its  perfume  is  !     Oh,  do  not  waste  the  golden  mo- 
ments !   What,  are  you  back  so  soon  ! 

See  what  parts  of  speech  you  can  recognize  in  the  story  in 
Chapter  II.,  Part  III. 

II. 

A  LITTLE  STUDY  OF  WORDS. 

The  little  things  called  words^  which  we  use  so  freely 
to  express  our  thoughts,  and  which  we  must  learn  to  use 
very  carefully  and  correctly,  have,  many  of  them,  inter- 
esting meanings  of  which  we  do  not  think  as  we  use 
them.  We  smile,  perhaps,  when  we  read  of  such  Indian 
names  as  Laughing  Water  and  West  Wind  and  Pearl 
Feather;  but  perhaps  we  may  not  know  that  Margaret 
means  a  pearl,  and  John  means  the  gracious  gift  of  God, 
and  Mary  means  a  star  of  the  sea,  and  Philip  means  a  lover 
of  horses.     The  dear,  old-fashioned  names,  Patience,  Faith, 


A  LITTLE  STUDY  OF   WORDS.  25 

Hope,  Charity,  express  qualities  which  we  trust  belong  to 
all  who  are  so  named,  but  every  name  by  which  we  call 
one  another  has  its  own  meaning,  and  most  of  the  meanings 
are  pleasant.  The  Indian  mother  who  calls  her  little  brown 
daughter  Minnehaha,  laughing  water ^  thinks  perhaps  of  the 
sweet  murmur  of  the  rippling  stream,  or  its  bright  sparkle 
when  the  sun  shines  on  it,  and  her  daughter's  voice  recalls 
the  music  of  the  water  or  her  bright  eyes  remind  her  of  its 
glancing  lights.  So  the  mother  who  first  named  her  daugh- 
ter Margaret  thought  of  her  as  a  precious  pearl,  and  the 
father  who  first  named  his  son  John,  thought  of  him  as  a 
gracious  gift  of  God. 

It  takes  but  the  thought  of  a  moment  to  understand  why 
the  morning-glory  is  so  called,  and  we  can  see  the  day* a  eye 
in  the  daisy ;  but  we  shall  need  to  use  the  dictionary  to  find 
that  the  little  swaying  anemone  is  the  wind-flower^  that  the 
pansy  is  a  thought,  that  the  dandelion  is  the  lion^s  tooth,  that 
the  cemetery  is  a  sleeping  place,  or  that  the  little  squirrel, 
whom  we  see  with  his  bushy  tail  curved  over  his  back,  is 
called  by  a  name  which  means  shadow-tail. 

A  large  dictionary  tells  us  all  of  these  interesting  facts 
about  words ;  it  tells  us,  too,  how  to  spell  them  and  how  to 
pronounce  them ;  what  different  meanings  a  word  may  have, 
and  much  more  that  it  is  profitable  for  us  to  know.  In  con- 
nection with  all  of  our  work  in  language,  the  dictionary 
should  be  carefully  studied.  If  you  have  a  large  dictionary, 
it  will  be  interesting  to  find  in  it  what  these  words  meant 
originally : 

school,     companion,    journey,     handkerchief,     boarder, 
good-by,        farewell,        angel,        armor,        handsome. 


26     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR, 

Note  :    Helpful  books  in  the  study  of  the  origin   and 
meaning  of  words,  are : 

"  Short  Studies  from  the  Dictionary,"  Arthur  Oilman. 
"  Rambles  Among  Words,"  William  Swinton. 
"  Words  and  Their  Uses,"  Eichard  Grant  White. 

III. 

Sentences  for  dictation  : 

1.  Do  not  let  words  that  do  harm  escape  from  your 
lips. 

2.  Words  that  do  harm  are  profane  words,  foul  words, 
angry  words,  and  careless  words. 

3.  What  beautiful  meanings  some  words  have ! 

4.  School  comes  from  a  word  that  means  leisure. 
6.     Leisure  for  what,  do  you  think  ? 

Give  orally,    or  write,  sentences  containing  the  following 
words  : 


1.    her  daughter , means 

2.     like  the  ,   because    

thought. 

3.  Did  you  know shadow-tail  ? 

4.  The  squirrel  is  called because  - 


means  a 


5.     Oh,    here   are ,   meaning    glory-of-the-morning, 

and  daisies  meaning ,  and  pansies  for ! 

What  words  mean  the  same  as  harm  ?  escape  ?  leisure  ? 

What  words  are  the  opposite  in  meaning  of  harm  ?  foul  ? 
careless  ? 


THE  NOUN  A    WORD   THAT  NAMES.  27 

A  word  having  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  m^eaning  as 
another  is  its  synonym. 

A  word  that  is  the  opjposite  in  mea/ning  of  another  is  its 
antonym. 

CHAPTER   IV. 

THE  NOUN  A  WORD  THAT  NAMES. 

I. 

There  was  once  a  child  who  lived  in  a  little  hut,  and  in 
the  hut  there  was  only  a  little  bed  and  a  looking-glass 
Avhich  hung  in  a  dark  corner.  Kow,  the  child  cared  not  at 
all  for  the  looking-glass,  but,  as  soon  as  the  first  sunbeam 
glided  through  the  casement  and  kissed  his  sweet  eyelids, 
and  the  finch  and  the  linnet  waked  him  with  their  merry 
morning  songs,  he  arose,  and  went  into  the  green  meadow 
and  begged  flour  of  the  primrose,  and  sugar  of  the  violet, 
and  butter  of  the  buttercup ;  he  shook  dew-drops  from  the 
cowslip  into  the  cup  of  a  harebell ;  he  spread  out  a  large 
lime-leaf,  set  his  breakfast  upon  it,  and  feasted  daintily. 

—From  "The  Story  Without  End,"  by  F.  W.  Carove. 

What  was  told  you  in  Chapter  111.  of  the  service  that  words 
perform  in  a  sentence  ?  How  many  kinds  of  such  service  did 
we  distinguish  ?  Into  how  many  classes,  then,  may  we  divide 
words  ?    What  is  a  noun  ? 

Robin,  blue-bird,  sparrow,  are  the  names  of  birds;  lion, 
dog,  horse,  are  the  names  of  animals ;  book,  picture,  bell,  are 
the  names  of  objects ;  father,  mother,  sister,  are  the  names  of 
relatives  ;  anger,  love,  pride,  sorrow,  are  the  names  of  feelings  ; 
John,  Margaret,  Mr.  Winslow,  are  the  names  of  people. 


28     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

In  the  above  quotation  there  are  twenty-four  nouns^  four 
of  which  are  printed  in  italics.  Make  a  list  of  the  other  twenty 
nouns.  Why  is  each  a  noun  ?  Tell  what  each  names,  thus: 
Corner  is  a  part  of  a  room,  casement  is  a  part  of  a  window, 
lime-leaf  is  the  leaf  of  the  lime-tree. 

Note  :  If  possible  the  dictionary  should  be  consulted  by  the 
pupils,  that  their  definitions  may  be  correct. 

II. 

Give  five  sentences,  each  containing  the  name  of  something 
in  the  room.     What  is  the  noun  in  each  sentence  ? 

Give  five  sentences,  each  containing  the  name  of  something 
at  home.     What  is  the  noun  that  you  use  in  each  sentence  ? 

Give  five  sentences,  each  containing  the  name  of  some  per- 
son.    What  is  the  noun  that  you  use  in  each  ? 

Write  three  sentences,  each  containing  the  name  of  an 
animal ;  three,  each  containing  the  name  of  a  flower ;  three, 
each  containing  the  name  of  a  feeling  ;  three,  each  contain- 
ing the  name  of  some  person.  Underline  the  nouns  in  these 
sentences. 

Note  :  The  amount  of  written  work  may  be  increased  or 
diminished,  according  to  the  needs  of  the  class.  It  is  better 
to  have  a  few  good  sentences — sentences  that  have  a  thought 
worthy  of  expression — than  many  trivial  ones.  From  the  first 
the  teacher  should  strive  to  obtain  sentences  that  are  the 
expression  of  thoughts. 


SELECTION  FOR  LITERARY  ANALYSIS.  29 

CHAPTER    V. 
SELECT/ON  FOR   LITERARY  ANALYSIS. 

The  Beggar. 

1.  A  beggar  through  the  world  am  I, — 
From  place  to  place  I  wander  by. 
Fill  up  my  pilgrim's  scrip  for  me, 
For  Christ's  sweet  sake  and  charity. 

2.  A  little  of  thy  steadfastness, 
Eounded  with  leafy  gracefulness. 
Old  oak,  give  me, — 

That  the  world's  blasts  may  round  me  blow, 
And  I  yield  gently  to  and  fro, 
While  my  stout-hearted  trunk  below 
And  firm-set  roots  unshaken  be. 

3.  Some  of  thy  stern,  unyielding  might, 
Enduring  still  through  day  and  night 
Kude  tempest-shock  and  withering  blight, — 
That  I  may  keep  at  bay 

The  changeful  April  sky  of  chance 
And  the  strong  tide  of  circumstance,— 
Give  me,  old  granite  gray. 

4.  Some  of  thy  pensiveness  serene. 
Some  of  thy  never-dying  green, 
Put  in  this  scrip  of  mine, — 

That  griefs  may  fall  like  snowflakes  light, 


30     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

And  deck  me  in  a  robe  of  white, 
Ready  to  be  an  angel  bright, — 
O  sweetly  mournful  pine. 

5.  A  little  of  thy  merriment. 

Of  thy  sparkling,  light  content, 
Give  me,  my  cheerful  brook, — 
That  I  may  still  be  full  of  glee 
And  gladsomeness,  where'er  I  be. 
Though  fickle  fate  hath  prisoned  me 
In  some  neglected  nook. 

6.  Ye  have  been  very  kind  and  good 
To  me,  since  I've  been  in  the  wood ; 
Ye  have  gone  nigh  to  fill  my  heart ; 
But,  good-by,  kind  friends,  every  one, 
I've  far  to  go  ere  set  of  sun ; 

Of  all  good  things  I  would  have  part ; 
The  day  was  high  ere  I  could  start,' 
And  so  my  journey  's  scarce  begun. 

7.  Heaven  help  me !  how  could  I  forget 
To  beg  of  thee,  dear  violet ! 

Some  of  thy  modesty, 

That  blossoms  here  as  well,  unseen, 

As  if  before  the  world  thou'st  been, 

O  give,  to  strengthen  me. 

— James  Eussell  Lowell. 

[James  Russell  Lowell,  an  American  poet,  born  in  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts,  February  22, 1819 ;  died  there,  August 
12, 1891.] 


SELECTION  FOR  LITERARY  ANALYSIS.  31 

Imagine  a  beautiful  wood,  in  which  there  are  strong  oak 
trees,  and  swaying,  -green  pine  trees.  A  little  brook  flows 
through  this  wood,  its  waters  babbling  and  singing  on  their 
way  to  the  river,  far  away.  On  the  banks  of  the  stream  the 
modest  violets  are  growing.  A  path  leads  through  the  wood, 
past  the  oaks  and  pines,  along  the  banks  of  the  little  stream, 
and  on  until  it  is  lost  to  sight.  Along  this  path  comes  a  pilgrim 
(a  traveler),  with  his  scrip  (a  traveler's  bag).  With  this  pic- 
ture in  our  minds,  let  us  see  what  he  begs,  from  whom,  and 
why. 

In  the  second  stanza,  of  whom  does  he  beg  ?  What  two 
things  does  he  beg  of  the  oak  ?  Which  of  these  gives  strength  ? 
Which  beauty  ?  Describe  the  oak  as  you  picture  it.  When  the 
wind  blows  does  it  bend  it  down  ?  W^hat  two  things  keep  it 
from  being  blown  over  ?  Which  of  these  especially  holds  it  ? 
Do  you  suppose  the  traveler  wishes  the  steadfastness  of  the 
oak  to  prevent  him  from  being  blown  over  by  the  wind,  or  does 
he  mean  that  he  wishes  to  be  steady  against  temptations  as  the 
oak  is  steady  against  the  wind  ? 

In  the  third  stanza,  of  whom  does  he  beg  ?  What  does  he 
ask  the  granite  to  give  him  ?  A  blight  is  something  that  with- 
ers or  destroys  plants.  Would  it  destroy  granite  ?  What  is 
the  weather  in  April  ?  When  we  speak  of  an  April  day  we 
mean  one  in  which  there  is  sunshine  and  then  showers.  By 
the  ''changeful  April  sky  of  chance,'"  may  he  mean  good  for- 
tune and  then  bad  fortune  following  each  other  as  blue  sky  and 
cloudy  sky  follow  each  other  on  a  showery  April  day  ?  What 
great  body  of  water  has  tides  ?  Do  these  tides  sweep  in  with 
great  force  ?  By  the  "  strong  tide  of  circumstance  "  may  he 
mean  ill-success  or  misfortune,  that  it  takes  strength  like  that 
of  granite  to  bear  ? 


32     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

In  the  fourth  stanza,  of  whom  does  he  beg  ?  The  pine  tree 
is  not  a  noisy  tree.  It  stands  quiet  and  still,  as  a  man  may 
when  he  is  thinking.  The  pine  tree  is  not  a  cheerful  tree, 
like  the  elm.  It  is  rather  a  gloomy  tree.  Pensiveness  means 
gloomy  thoughtfulness.  Do  you  see  why  he  thinks  the  pine 
tree  has  pensiveness  ?  The  pine  tree  is  green  all  the  year 
round.  Do  you  see  why  he  speaks  of  its  never-dying  green  ? 
When  the  snow  falls  on  the  pine  tree,  it  is  caught  by  the  pine 
needles,  and  then  the  tree  looks  as  if  it  had  a  white  and  green 
robe  on. 

In  the  fifth  stanza,  of  whom  does  he  beg  ?  What  does  he 
beg  of  the  stream  ?  The  brook  sings  and  is  happy,  although  it 
is  all  alone  in  the  forest.  So  he  wishes  the  brook  to  give  him 
its  content,  its  merriment,  so  that  if  he  is  neglected  and  alone 
he  may  be  full  of  glee  and  gladsomeness. 

In  the  sixth  stanza,  what  does  he  mean  when  he  says  '^  the 
day  was  high "  ?  What  word  might  he  have  used  instead  of 
*^day^^? 

In  the  seventh  stanza,  of  whom  does  he  beg  ?  Why  did  he 
not  beg  of  the  violet  before  ?  Why  is  the  violet  called  ^^  mod- 
est "  ?     "  Modest "  means  here  shy  ;  not  bold. 

Note  :  Children  will  appreciate  the  best  literature  if  rightly 
presented.  They  sense  much  more  than  they  may  be  able  to 
express.  The  teacher  should  aim  to  get  the  pupils  as  interested 
as  possible  in  the  poem,  to  make  them  form  mental  pictures 
from  it,  and  by  question  and  answer  to  lead  them  to  under- 
stand it.  Then  there  should  be  a  final  reading  of  it,  and  it 
should  be  left  to  ripen  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  Do  not  use 
this  poem  for  dictation  or  composition  work. 


COMMON  AND  PROPER  NOUNS.  33 

CHAPTER   VI. 

COMMON  AND  PROPER  NOUNS. 

I. 

A  name  may  be  common  to  a  class  of  objects  :  boy,  book, 
school,  hill,  river.  These  names  are  not  the  names  of  any  par- 
ticular boy,  book,  school,  hill,  or  river,  but  each  is  a  name  com- 
mon to  its  class  of  objects.  If  I  say,  ^'A  hoy  hrought  me  these 
flowers,"  you  are  not  told  what  boy.  It  may  be  any  one  of  a 
large  number  of  boys.  If  I  say,  *'  Tlie  hill  is  beautiful"  I  do 
not  tell  you  what  hill.  It  may  be  any  one  of  a  large  number 
of  hills. 

A  noun  that  is  the  common  name  of  a  class  of  objects  is 
a  cominon  noun. 

A  noun  may  be  the  name  of  a  particular,  or  individual  ob- 
ject. It  distinguishes  that  object  from  others  of  the  same  class. 
Edward  Temple  is  the  name  of  a  particular  boy ;  '^  Black 
Beauty^'  is  the  name  of  a  particular  book ;  the  John  Ward 
School  is  the  name  of  a  particular  school ;  Silver  Hill  is  the 
name  of  a  particular  hill  ;  the  Merrimack  River  is  the  name  of 
a  particular  river.  If  I  say,  ''  Edward  Temple  brought  me  these 
flowers,"  you  are  told  what  boy  brought  them.  If  I  say,  ^^  Sil- 
ver Hill  is  beautiful,"  I  tell  you  what  hill  is  beautiful. 

A  noun  that  is  ike  name  of  a  particulai^  object  is  a 
proper  noun. 

Notice  with  what  kind  of  a  letter  each  of  the  proper  nouns 
begins. 

Form  a  rule  for  the  beginning  of  proper  nouns. 
3 


34     THE  ESESNTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Write  a  list  of  ten  common  nouns. 

Write  a  list  of  ten  geographical  proper  nouns  ;  of  ten  proper 
nouns  that  are  the  names  of  persons. 

II. 

Make  a  list  of  ten  proper  nouns,  and  of  as  many  common 
nouns  as  possible,  from  the  following  description  : 

There  is  a  beautiful  road  leading  from  the  village  of 
Franconia  through  the  valley  that  lies  between  Mount  La- 
fayette and  Mount  Cannon.  It  touches  the  borders  of  Echo 
Lake,  emerges  suddenly  into  the  plateau  where  the  Profile 
House  is  situated,  winds  past  the  shores  of  Profile  Lake,  and 
then  on  and  on  beneath  towering  mountains  and  bare,  up- 
reaching  ledges,  the  music  of  the  winds  among  the  trees,  and 
of  the  brooks,  singing  as  their  waters  slip  from  stone  to  stone, 
making  melody  all  the  way.  A  short  distance  beyond  the 
Profile  House,  and  just  as  the  dimpling  waters  of  Profile 
Lake  are  seen  in  front,  as  one  glances  up  to  the  ribbon  of 
blue  sky  seen  between  the  avenue  of  trees,  he  beholds,  jut- 
ting out  from  the  side  of  Cannon  Mountain,  a  majestic,  stern 
face,  the  first  sight  of  which  is  wonderfully  impressive.  To 
some  it  seems  like  the  features  of  Washington,  to  others  it 
is  the  face  of  a  younger  man.  It  is  the  Profile,  the  Great 
Stone  Face,  carved  by  a  mightier  master  than  man — by  the 
hand  of  I^ature  herself. 

The  GrEEAT  Stone  Face. 

The  Great  Stone  Face  was  a  work  of  Nature  in  her  mood 

of  majestic  playfulness,  formed  on  the  perpendicular  side  of 

a  mountain  by  some  immense  rocks,  which  had  been  thrown 

together  in  such  a  position  as,  when  viewed  at  a  proper  dis- 


COMMON  AND  PROPER  NOUNS.  35 

tance,  precisely  to  resemble  the  human  countenance.  It 
seemed  as  if  an  enormous  giant,  or  a  Titan,  had  sculptured 
his  own  likeness  on  the  precipice.  There  was  the  broad  arch 
of  the  forehead,  a  hundred  feet  in  height ;  the  nose,  with 
its  long  bridge ;  and  the  vast  lips,  which,  if  they  could  have 
spoken,  would  have  rolled  their  thunder  accents  from  one 
end  of  the  valley  to  the  other.  True  it  is,  that  if  the  spec- 
tator approached  too  near,  he  lost  the  outline  of  the  gigantic 
visage,  and  could  discern  only  a  heap  of  ponderous  and 
gigantic  rocks,  piled  in  chaotic  ruin  one  upon  another.  Ke- 
tracing  his  steps,  however,  the  wondrous  features  would 
again  be  seen ;  and  the  farther  he  Avithdrew  from  them,  the 
more  like  a  himian  face  did  they  appear ;  until,  as  it  grew 
dim  in  the  distance,  with  the  clouds  and  the  glorified  vapor 
of  the  mountains  clustering  about  it,  the  Great  Stone  Face 
seemed  positively  to  be  alive. — Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 

[N^athaniel  Hawthorne,  a  New  England  romancist,  was 
born  in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  July  4,  1804,  and  died  in  Ply- 
mouth, New  Hampshire,  May  19,  1864.] 

III. 

Sentences  for  dictation  : 

1.  The  Great  Stone  Face  is  on  the  side  of  Mount  Can- 
non. 

2.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Old  Man  of  the  Moun- 
tain." 

3.  Do  you  not  think  "  The  Profile  "  a  prettier  name  ? 

4.  What  a  stern  look  the  face  has ! 

5.  As  you  ride  past  it,  it  becomes  merely  a  ledge  of  rocks. 


36     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Complete  sentences  from  the  following  : 

1.  The  road  passes  from ,  through . 

2.  It  is  a road ;  a  little flows ,  singing  as 

it  slips  from to . 

3.  A lies  at  the  base  of  . 


4.  Should  you  not  like  to  see ,  when is  back  of 

it,  and  the  clouds ? 

5.  How and the  face  is ! 


CHAPTER  VII. 

SURNAMES  AND   CHRISTIAN  NAMES. 

{Family  Names  and  Personal  Names.) 

I. 

The  first  President  of  the  United  States  was  George 
"Washington.  His  father's  name  was  Augustine  Washing- 
ton. His  mother's  name  was  Mary  Washington.  His  elder 
brother's  name  was  La\\T:'ence  Washington. 

What  was  the  name  of  this  family  f  What  is  the  name  of 
your  family  ?     Give  the  names  of  five  families- 

The  name  common  to  the  memhers  of  a  family  is  the 
fam^ily  name  or  surname. 

What  was  the  distinguishing  name  of  George  Washington's 
father  ?  of  his  mother  ?  of  his  elder  brother  ?  of  himself  ? 

The  names  given  to  the  indimduals  of  a  family  to  dis- 
tinguish  them  are  personal  names,  or  given  or  Christian 
names. 


THE  ORIGIN  OF  SURNAMES.  37 

What  is  your  personal  or  Christian  name  ?  Give  the  per- 
sonal names  of  five  other  pupils. 

Sometimes  two  or  more  personal  names  are  given  to  a  per- 
son. All  given  names  except  the  first  are  called  middle  names. 
In  the  name  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  Oliver  is  the  personal 
or  Christian  name,  W^endell  the  middle  name,  and  Holmes  the 
surname. 

Which  are  personal  or  Christian  names,  which  family  names, 
and  which  middle  names  in  the  following  :  Betty  Alden,  Louisa 
May  Alcott,  John  Greenleaf  Whittier,  Edward  Everett  Hale, 
Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich,  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  Molly  Elliot 
Seawell,  John  Eandolph,  Mary  Powell,  John  Paul  Jones  ? 

Give  your  own  personal  name,  middle  name,  and  surname. 
Give  the  personal  names  and  surnames  of  five  of  your  school- 
mates. 

All  personal  names,  middle  names,  and  surnames  are  proper 
nouns.     With  what  kind  of  letters  should  they  be  begun  ? 

Instead  of  the  full  name,  the  initials  of  one  or  all  of  the 
Christian  names  may  be  used.  Such  initials  must  always  be 
written  in  capitals  and  followed  by  a  period,  thus  :  L.  M.  Al- 
cott, John  G.  Whittier,  E.  E.  Hale,  T.  Bailey  Aldrich,  M.  E. 
Seawell.     For  what  does  each  initial  in  the  above  names  stand  ? 

Note  :  Piipils  should  be  taught  to  torite  their  first  Christian 
name  in  full, 

II. 

TH£  ORIGIN  OF  SURNAMES. 

A  long  time  ago,  before  the  year  1000,  there  were  no 
family  names  or  surnames,  and  men  were  distinguished  only 
by  their  personal  names,  Edward,  Edmund,  Alfred,  John, 


38     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR.. 

Robert,  Harold,  etc.  But  there  were  so  many  Edwards  and 
Alfreds  and  Roberts  and  others  of  the  same  personal  name, 
that  it  became  convenient  to  describe  them  bj  some  char- 
acteristic :  by  what  they  did,  or  where  they  lived,  or  how 
they  looked,  and  so  forth.  So  Harold,  who  could  run  as 
swift  as  a  hare,  became  Harold  Harefoot ;  Edward,  who  was 
a  baker,  became  Edward  Baker,  while  EdAvard,  who  was  a 
carpenter,  became  Edward  Carpenter ;  Edmund,  who  lived 
by  the  water,  became  Edmund  At  water  {At  means  hy)'^ 
Edmund,  who  lived  by  the  woods,  became  Edmund  Atwood ; 
Edmund,  who  lived  by  the  bridge,  became  Edmund  Bridge ; 
Alfred,  who  was  tall,  was  called  Alfred  Longfellow,  and 
Alfred,  who  was  little,  was  called  Alfred  Small ;  John,  who 
was  the  son  of  John,  became  John  Johnson,  and  John,  who 
was  the  son  of  William,  became  John  Williamson.  Then 
these  descriptive  names  became  family  names. 

Such  a  descriptive  or  family  name  is  called  a  surname^ 
because  that  word  means  a  name  above  or  in  addition  to  the 
given  name.  The  family  name  was  formerly  called,  also,  a 
sirname,  meaning  ^^V^-name,  a  name  derived  from  the  sire — 
the  father  or  more  remote  ancestor — of  the  family. 

Sometimes  a  name  is  added  to  the  Christian  name  and 
surname  to  distinguish  the  person  from  another  who  has 
the  same  names,  thus :  Charles  Carroll  of  Garrollton^  John 
Randolph  of  Eoanohe,  and  these  additional  names  are  called 
to-names. 

III. 

Sentences  for  dictation  and  completion  : 

1. is  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

2.     The  initials  of  mv  name  are  —  —  — . 


A  STORY  FROM  " HIAWATHA:'  39 

3.  If  I  write  my  name  in  full,  it  is .   ^ 

4.  I  have  three  friends  named  — ,  — ,  and  — . 

5.  The  name  Margaret  means  — ,  and  the  name  John 
means  — .  ' 

Complete  the  following  outline  of  a  paragraph  : 

Once  upon  a  time  there  lived  a  little  lad  whose 

ran  so  swiftly  that  his  —  called  him .     His  playmates 

were  a  little  white  cat,  named  — ,  and  a  little  black  dog, 
named  — .  They  played  in  a  little  grove  on  —  Hill,  near  — 
—  Brook.  — 's  mother  used  to  call  them  from  the  door, 
'"  Come,  — ,  and  — ,  and  — ."     Then  they  would  start  in  a 

race  to  the  house,  and  —  always  got  there  first,  and 

always  came  last. 

Note  :  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  pupils,  one  after  another, 
read  the  paragraph,  completing  it  each  after  his  own  imagina- 
tion. As  soon  as  there  is  too  much  repetition,  or  the  exercise 
becomes  dull,  it  should  be  left. 

Eead  the  story,  substituting  synonyms  for  little,  lad, 
swiftly,  called,  playmates. 

What  are  antonyms  for  little,  swiftly,  white,  always,  f/rst  ? 


CHAPTER    VIII. 
A  STORY  FROM  LONGFELLOW'S  "  THE  SONG  OF  HIAWATHA." 

In  the  lands  of  the  beautiful  West  there  once  lived  a 
lovely  Indian  maiden  named  We-no-nah.  She  had  grown 
up  tall  and  slender  like  a  prairie  lily,  and  had  married  West- 
Wind.     When  her  little  son,  Hi-a-wa-tha,  was  born,  Weno- 


40     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRA3I3IAR. 

nah  gave  him  to  her  mother,  No-ko-mis,  to  care  for,  because 
she  knew  that  she  should  not  live  to  care  for  him. 

E'okomis  taught  the  little  lad  many  pretty  stories.  She 
told  him  that  when  the  wild  flowers  of  the  forest  and  the 
lilies  of  the  prairie  fade  and  die  on  earth,  they  blossom  in 
the  sky  and  make  the  rainbow. 

Hiawatha  learned  the  names  of  the  birds,  how  they  build 
their  nests,  where  they  hide  themselves  in  winter,  and  how 
they  talk  together,  and  he  used  to  call  them  "  Hiawatha's 
chickens."  He  learned,  too,  how  the  beavers  build  their 
lodges,  where  the  squirrels  hide  their  acorns,  why  the  rein- 
deer runs  so  swiftly,  and  why  the  rabbit  is  so  timid.  He 
used  to  talk  with  these  animals  when  he  met  them,  and  he 
called  them  "  Hiawatha's  brothers." 

One  day  I-a-goo,  who  was  an  old  Indian  and  a  friend 
of  l^okomis,  made  a  bow  for  Hiawatha  from  the  branch  of 
an  ash  tree.  The  arrows  he  made  of  an  oak  bough,  and 
he  tipped  them  with  flint  and  winged  them  with  feathers. 
Then  he  said  to  Hiawatha,  "  Go  into  the  forest  where  the 
red  deer  herd  together  and  kill  for  us  a  deer  with  antlers !  " 

So  Hiawatha  went  all  alone  into  the  forest,  and  he  was 
very  proud  because  he  was  sent  to  kill  a  deer  with  his  bow 
and  arrows.  The  robin  and  the  bluebird  sang  to  him,  "  Do 
not  shoot  us,  Hiawatha ! "  and  the  squirrel  chattered,  ''  Do 
not  shoot  me,  Hiawatha ! "  and  the  timid  rabbit  sat  erect 
upon  his  haunches,  at  a  distance,  and  said,  "  Do  not  shoot 
me,  Hiawatha ! " 

But  Hiawatha  did  not  talk  to  them  nor  notice  them  on 
this  day,  for  he  thought  only  of  the  red  deer.  He  followed 
the  path  which  led  down  to  the  ford  across  the  river,  and 


A   STORY  FROM  ''HIAWATHA:'  41 

when  lie  came  to  the  ford  he  hid  in  the  alder  bushes  and 
waited  for  the  deer  to  come  to  the  river  to  drink.  By  and 
by  he  saw  two  eyes  looking  out  from  the  thicket,  then  two 
nostrils,  and  then  the  antlers  of  a  deer.  And  when  he  saw 
the  antlers,  his  heart  beat  fast  mth  excitement,  but  he  sped 
an  arroAY  from  his  bow  and  the  deer  fell  dead. 

Hiawatha  bore  the  red  deer  home,  and  when  lagoo  and 
Kokomis  saw  him  they  praised  him.  They  made  a  feast 
and  the  people  of  the  village  came  and  ate  the  flesh  of  the 
red  deer,  and  they  called  Hiawatha  the  Strong  Heart,  for 
they  thought  he  had  done  a  very  manly  action.  IS'okomis 
was  very  proud  of  her  grandson,  and  she  made  a  cloak  for 
Hiawatha  from  the  beautiful  hide  of  the  deer. 

The  teacher  should  not  fail  to  read  to  the  pupils  the  story 
as  Longfellow  tells  it  in  the  chapter  called  ''  Hiawatha^s  Child- 
hood.'^ 

This  story  should  be  used  for  a  conversation  lesson.  No 
title  has  been  given  to  it.  Let  the  pupils  suggest  titles  and 
tell  why  they  choose  each.  How  do  birds  build  their  nests  ? 
Do  they  all  build  alike  ?  Where  did  the  beavers  live,  and  how 
did  they  build  their  lodges  ?  Why  are  animals  afraid  of  man  ? 
Are  they  afraid  of  one  another  ?  What  do  Indians  think  is 
manly  ?  Do  their  ideas  of  what  is  manly  differ  from  ours  ? 
Was  it  brave  in  Hiawatha  to  kill  the  deer  ?  Is  it  manly  to  go 
hunting  ?  etc.,  etc. 

Another  story  of  Hiawatha,  that  may  bo  arranged  in  the 
same  way,  is  '^  Hiawatha's  Sailing." 

Note  :  While  the  story  may  be  used  for  a  review  of  all  that 
the  pupils  have  learned,  and  for  dictation  sentences,  the  prime 


42     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

purpose  of  its  introdiiction  is  to  get  the  pupils  to  talk  freely  on 
subjects  in  which  they  are  interested,  to  teach  them  to  clothe 
their  thoughts  in  correct  expression,  and  to  introduce  them  to 
the  beauties  of  good  literature. 


CHAPTER    IX. 
REVIEW. 

I. 

Let  each  pupil  mention  one  thing  that  he  has  learned  since 
beginning  the  study  of  Language,  care  being  taken  that  no 
pupil  mentions  what  another  pupil  has  previously  given,  and 
that  all  the  answers  are  given  in  complete  and  good  sentences. 

IL 

What  are  the  two  parts  of  a  sentence  ?  Define  each.  Write 
upon  the  board  from  dictation.  The  river  at  the  foot  of  the  hill 
sparTcles  in  the  sunshine.  Draw  one  horizontal  line  under  the 
subject.  Draw  two  lines  under  the  predicate.  Write  an 
original  sentence  on  the  board.  Draw  one  line  under  the  sub- 
ject and  two  under  the  predicate. 

Tell  the  story  of  ''The  Birds'  Christmas  Feast  in  Norway.'" 

Name  and  define  the  four  kinds  of  sentences,  and  write  one 
of  each  kind  on  the  board.  Draw  one  line  under  the  subject, 
and  two  under  the  predicate,  of  each.  (Supply  you  as  the  sub- 
ject of  the  imperative  sentence.) 

What  is  a  noun  ?  Give  five  nouns  that  are  the  names  of 
objects  that  you  can  see  ;  five  of  objects  that  you  can  not  see. 
Give  a  sentence  containing  a  noun,  and  mention  the  noun. 

Who  wrote  ''  The  Beggar''  ?      Of  whom  did  the  beggar  ask 


THE   WRITING   OF  DATES.  43 

gifts  ?  What  did  he  beg  of  each  ?  What  is  another  word  for 
pilgrim  ?  scrip  ? 

What  is  a  common  noun  ?  Give  five  common  nouns.  What 
is  a  proper  noun  ?  Give  five  proper  nouns :  the  name  of  a  per- 
son, of  a  mountain,  of  a  river,  of  a  school,  of  a  town.  With 
what  kind  of  a  letter  must  a  proper  noun  begin  ? 

What  is  a  surname  ?  Why  is  it  called  a  surname  9  What 
is  a  given  or  Christian  name  ?  What  are  initials  ?  How  are  the 
initials  of  a  name  written  ?  What  is  a  to-name  9  What  was  the 
origin  of  surnames  9  of  to-names  9 

III. 

Let  the  pupils  tell  the  story  of  Hiawatha's  childhood,  each 
giving  a  single  sentence  of  the  story.  Care  must  be  taken  that 
the  connection  of  the  story  is  preserved,  and,  as  always,  that 
the  sentences  are  good  sentences.  Avoid  too  frequent  use  of 
the  pronoun. 

CHAPTER    X. 
THE    WRITING    OF    DATES. 

I. 

A  full  date  states  the  place,  year,  month,  and  day.  A 
partial  date  may  state  the  year,  month,  and  day ;  the  year  and 
month ;  the  month  and  day ;  or  merely  the  year. 

A  letter  or  legal  paper  should  contain  the  full  date ;  the 
time  of  an  event  may  be  given  with  a  partial  date. 

This  letter  is  dated  Concord^  Massachusetts^  April  19, 
1YY6. 

This  will  is  dated  Richmond,  Virginia,  January  12, 1894. 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  born  Janua/ry  17,  1706. 


44     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

He  made  the  journey  to  Paris  in  Deceinher^  17Y6. 

Christmas  Day  is  December  25. 

A  five-cent  piece  dated  187Y  is  quite  a  rare  coin. 

A  date  is  properly  written  in  the  order  and  form  shown  in 
the  above  sentences.  In  legal  papers,  however,  the  date  is  often 
written  in  full,  thus  :  Dated  *  the  Twelfth  Day  of  January,  in 
the  Year  One  Thousand  Eight  Hundred  and  Ninety-four. 

The  above  dates  are  read:  April  nineteenth,  seventeen  seven- 
ty-six ;  January  twelfth,  eighteen  ninety-four  ;  January  seven- 
teenth, seventeen  hundred  six,  etc. 

Eead  the  following  dates :  October  12,  1492 ;  December 
22,  1620;  July  4,  1TY6 ;  July  4,  1804;  February  3,  1842; 
March  4,  1897 ;  April  19,  1898. 

Write  the  following  dates ;  June  seventeenth,  seventeen 
seventy-five;  August  third,  fourteen  ninety-two;  January 
first,  eighteen  ninety-eight ;  March  nineteenth,  seventeen 
hundred  nine ;  IS'ovember  thirteenth,  eighteen  ninety-seven ; 
September  fourteenth,  eighteen  seventy-three. 

We  date  the  years  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era. 
A  year  is  divided  into  twelve  months.  Instead  of  writing  the 
name  of  the  month  in  full,  we  sometimes  write  an  abbreviation 
for  it.  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  months  and  abbre- 
viations of  the  names  : 


January,  abbreviated  Jan. 

July,  not  abbreviated 

February,          "          Feb. 

August,           "            Aug. 

March,                "          Mar. 

September,      "            Sept. 

April,                 "          Apr. 

October,          "             Oct. 

May,  not  abbreviated 

J^ovember,      "            ]N'ov. 

June,   " 

December,       "            Dec. 

THE   WRITING   OF  DATES.  45 

The  naines  of  the  months  are  jp^'oper  nouns,  and  should 
alioays  hegin  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  year  is  divided  into  four  seasons :  spring,  summer, 
auticmn,  and  winter.     These  words  are  common  nouns. 

II. 

Notice  the  use  of  capitals  in  the  following  verse.  Explain 
the  description  of  each  month  : 

The   Months. 

The  new  year  comes  with  shouts  and  laughter ; 
And  see,  twelve  months  are  folloAving  after. 

First  January,  all  in  white. 

Then  February,  short  and  bright ; 
See  breezy  March  go  tearing  round, 
But  tearful  April  makes  no  sound ; 
May  brings  a  pole  with  flowers  crowned, 
And  June  strews  roses  on  the  ground : 

A  pop  !  a  bang  !  July  comes  in. 

Says  August,  "  What  a  fearful  din ! " 
September  brings  her  golden  sheaves, 
October  waves  her  pretty  leaves ; 

While  pale  i^ovember  waits  to  see 

December  bring  the  Christmas  tree. 

III. 

Sentences  for  dictation  and  completion  : 

1.  is  the  first  month  of  the  year.  It  is  abbrevi- 
ated   . 


46     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  shortest  month  of  the  year  is .     It  is  ab- 
breviated   . 

3.  Do  you  not  think  that is  the  noisiest  month  of 

the  year  ? 

4.  What  pleasant  holidays  there  are  in and ! 

5.  I  was  born , ,  in  the  season  of . 

Complete  the  following  paragraph  : 

In  the  month  of  ,  after  showery had  gone,  I 

went  into to  gather .     I  found ,  ,  , 

and .     I  heard  the  merry of  ,  the  rippling  of 

a ,  the  soft of  the  wind  in  the and trees. 

The  sun ,  the  sky  was ,  and  all  nature  seemed 

to  be  beautiful  and  songful  once  more. 

IV. 

A  POEM  FOR  CONVERSATION  AND  MEMORIZING. 
Marjorie's   Almanac. 

Eobins  in  the  tree-top, 

Blossoms  in  the  grass, 
Green  things  a-growing 

Everywhere  you  pass ; 
Sudden  little  breezes. 

Showers  of  silver  dew. 
Black  bough  and  bent  twig 

Budding  out  anew ; 
Pine  tree  and  willow  tree, 

Fringed  elm  and  larch, — 
Don't  you  think  that  May-time  's 

Pleasanter  than  March  ? 


A   POEM  FOR   CONVERSATION  AND  MEMORIZING.     47 

Apples  in  the  orchard 

Mellowing  one  by  one, 
Strawberries  upturning 

Soft  cheeks  to  the  sun ; 
Roses  faint  mth  sweetness, 

Lilies  fair  of  face, 
Drowsy  scents  and  murmurs 

Haunting  every  place ; 
Lengths  of  golden  sunshine. 

Moonlight  bright  as  day, — 
Don't  you  think  that  summer  's 

Pleasanter  than  May  ? 

Roger  in  the  corn-patch 

Whistling  negro  songs ; 
Pussy  by  the  hearth-side 

Romping  with  the  tongs ; 
Chestnuts  in  the  ashes 

Bursting  through  the  rind ; 
Red  leaf  and  yellow  leaf 

Rustling  down  the  wind ; 
Mother  "  doing  peaches  " 

All  the  afternoon, — 
Don't  you  think  that  autumn  's 

Pleasanter  than  June  ? 

Little  fairy  snowflakes 

Dancing  in  the  flue ; 
Old  Mr.  Santa  Claus, 

What  is  keeping  you  ? 


48     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Tmlight  and  firelight, 

Shadows  come  and  go ; 
Merry  chime  of  sleigh  bells 

Tinkling  through  the  snow ; 
Mother  knitting  stockings, 

(Pussy's  got  the  ball), — 
Don't  you  think  that  winter  's 

Pleasanter  than  all  ? 

— Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich. 

[Thomas  Bailey  Aldrich,  a  poet  and  novelist,  born  in 
Portsmouth,  E'ew  Hampshire,  l^ovember  11,  1836.] 

Hints  for  conversation  :  The  time  of  the  coming  of  the 
birds.  When  do  the  robins  come  ?  When  do  they  go  away  ? 
Where  do  they  go  ?  When  are  they  most  musical  ?  What 
blossoms  grow  in  the  grass  ?  What  common  weeds  sometimes 
make  the  hills  and  fields  seem  golden  ?  (See  Lowell's  ''  The 
Dandelion. '')  Of  what  shape  are  the  dewdrops  ?  The  budding 
of  boughs  and  twigs.  When  do  they  bud  ?  How  do  they  pro- 
tect themselves  from  the  cold  ?  What  buds  expand  earliest  ? 
What  is  the  blossom  of  the  willow  tree  ?  Why  is  the  elm  called 
fringed  f  What  are  drowsy  scents  and  murmurs  ?  When  is 
chestnut  time  ?  The  colors  of  the  autumn  leaves.  Why  fairy 
snowflakes  ?  ♦ 


A  FE  W  COMMON  ABBRE  VIA  TIONS  A  ND  CONTRA  CTIONS.    49 

CHAPTER    XI. 
A  FEW  COMMON  ABBREVIATIONS  AND  CONTRACTIONS. 

I. 

The  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  are  abbreviated  as  fol- 
lows : 

Sunday,    Sun.  .  Wednesday,  Wed. 

Monday,  Mon.  Thursday,     Thurs. 

Tuesday,  Tues.  Friday,         Fri. 

Saturday,  Sat. 
The  title  Mister  is  always  written  in  its  abbreviated  form, 
Mr.,  and  its  plural.  Gentlemen  (Messieurs),  is  always  written 
Messrs.,  pronounced  Messers.     The  title  of  a  married  woman, 
Mistress,  is  always  written  Mrs.,  pronounced  Missez,  and  its 
plural.   Mistresses  (Mesdames),  is  represented  by  the  form  in 
the  parenthesis.     Notice  the  following  : 
Mr.  Kenneth  Grahame, 
Mrs.  Alice  Freeman  Palmer, 
Mrs.  Olive  Thorne  Miller, 
Messrs.  Thomas  and  Matthew  Arnold, 
Messrs.  Little,  Brown  &  Company. 
Mesdames  Stanton,  Willard,  and  Stone. 
Mesdames  Wells,  Gibson,  Field,  and  Drake. 
The^oUowing  abbreviations  are  in  common  use  : 
Doctor,  Dr.  Keverend,    Eev. 

Esquire,  Esq.  Honorable,  Hon. 

President,  Pres.  Governor,    Gov. 

Professor,  Prof.  General,       Gen. 

Superintendent,  Supt.  Street,  St. 

Avenue,  Ave.  Company,    Co. 

4 


50     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR, 

All  titles  and  ahhreviatioiis  of  titles  hegin  with  capital 
letters^  and  all  abbreviations  are  followed  hy  a  period. 

Titles  indicating  reverence  and  honor  should  always  be 
read  or  spoken  with  the  preceding,  thus  :  Rev.  Edward  Everett 
Hale  should  be  read  the  Reverend  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Hon. 
John  D.  Long  should  be  read  the  Honorable  John  D.  Long,  etc. 

With  titles  of  position  joined  to  a  person's  name,  the  is 
omitted,  thus  :  Pres.  Eliot  of  Harvard  College,  or  Charles  Will- 
iam Eliot,  President  of  Harvard  College,  etc. 

Eead  the  following  titles  and  names  : 

Rt.  (Right)  Rev.  Phillips  Brooks, 
Dr.  Samuel  G.  Howe,  Rev.  John  Graham, 

Hon.  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  Pres.  William  J.  Tucker, 

Rev.  Dr.  Hall,  Dr.  Dana, 

Prof.  Goodwin,  Supt.  Edward  Brooks, 

Messrs.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Company, 
Mesdames  Pay  son,  Adams,  and  Walton. 

II. 

Contraction  is  the  shortening  of  a  word  in  writing  or 
pronunciation  by  the  omission  of  the  initial  or  some  inter- 
mediate letter.  ♦ 

The  most  common  contractions  are  nH  for  not,  following  is, 
are,  was,  were,  has,  have,  had,  could,  would,  should,  can,  do, 
does,  etc.  ;  W  f or  would;  've  for  have;  'II  for  tvill,  and  't  lor 
it.  Such  contracted  forms  are  properly  written  as  if  a  part  of 
the  preceding  or  following  word.  The  apostrophe  ( ' )  must 
be  written  to  mark  the  place  of  the  letters  omitted. 


A  FEW  COMMON  ABBREVIATIONS  AND  CONTRACTIONS.    51 

Give  the  equivalent  uncontracted  forms  of  the  following  : 

The  book  isn't  here.  The  boys  aren't  playing.  The 
child  wasn't  well.  The  birds  weren't  able  to  fly.  Charles 
hasn't  his  book.  The  nuts  haven't  ripened  yet.  The  dis- 
couraged boy  said  he  couldn't  do  the  problems,  and  he 
wouldn't  try  again.  I'll  help  him  if  he'll  let  me.  You've 
tried  faithfully.  I'd  not  have  given  you  the  problem  if  I'd 
thought  that  you'd  find  it  so  hard.  'Tis  easy  to  make  mis- 
takes. 

Note  :  Pupils  should  be  given  repeated  drills  in  the  correct 
use  of  common  contractions.  The  following  forms  should  be 
used  in  varied  sentences,  at  first  daily,  and  later  with  less  fre- 
quency, until  their  correct  use  becomes  a  habit : 

I'm  not  — .  Am  I  not  —  ?  (Not  is  never  contracted 
with  am.) 

You  aren't  — .    Aren't  you  —  ?    He  isn't  — .     Isn't  he  —  ? 
We  aren't  — .    Aren't  we  —  ?    They  aren't  — .  Aren't  they  ? 
We,  you,  they,  weren't  — .       Weren't  we,  you,  they  —  ? 
I,  he,  it,  wasn't  — .  Wasn't  I,  he,  it  —  ? 

I,  you,  we,  they,  haven't  — .     Haven't  I,  you,  we,  they  —  ? 
He,  she,  it,  hasn't  — .  Hasn't  he,  she,  it  —  ? 

I,  you^  we,  they,  don't  — .        Don't  I,  you,  we,  they  —  ? 
He,  she,  it,  doesn't  — .  Doesn't  he,  she,  it  —  ? 

'd  represents  had  or  loould  j  should  is  never  contracted. 
11  always  represents  will;  shall  is  never  contracted. 
Use  the  group  of  sentences  beginning,    ^'The  book  isn't 
here,"  for  dictation  sentences. 


52     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER    XII. 
THE  PARTS  OF  A  LETTER. 

(A  letter  from  the  Rev.  Phillips  Brooks  to  his  niece.) 

CLa^qaaaX  13,    \SS2. 

'kajl  v&XjJo^  t/o-  XajJojc  cl  ^^MayUrb,  Vruuu  uaaX  oxy- 

curvcL    j^uyrwi)    cvy^    axrucL    ^dAXK/rrv    ixru   trVL 
aXajoX.        [ilAAAAyC^<iyu     cX    A<UyO-     CL     ^yuMxAJL 

Aixju^nAJA/Y^.^  cvno.  VrUL  ^AAy-^rtt  aXiAi^,  yuo~1<L- 
ixioAO-    o-^yu.    exru<L   cv^  cu  x<it/u/run.,   axrucL   trbt 


THE  PARTS  OF  A  LETTER.  58 

<!m3u>^    y\a>-^yyvl    cutvtxixru.         O'YVUyx^   cX    n^ruiX 

cUm>A.,  x<io-  VrwaX  w-rvuY]^  yxjl  twxl  to-  ^<U>LMxrKv 
cuAMo/vi  t/t>-  Ate.  oxioyCMyruA-  ^lm^-o^i,  umoo-  umx4 
tuxi.  to-  cbooo-truA.  ^xo^it  vJp  VnJb  aXajjX,  rix 
cm3-4aXcUvv  t,  a/yvdL  Vnjuu  yxxixL  to-  x<iwua.  cMxt 
to-  o-oox^  cboooJynx/b  o-omA^  trbt  UMoXeA.. 

JriMx  oooAAAt  4M.  lo-td  oX  A:Li<exiA<:iyyvt 
tni/yiytiA.  to-  cLo-  oi  U.xrucUy/\>-tA^,  amxL  tX 
Voju'YXAL  njA>AAy  ^YY\jaAL  'Tvcua^^  yxajaL  cu  IWcuyt- 

oayo-u>-,  o^OAA.  uoaaX  oo-  v-^iAiAZ  to-  Ido-^llo-oax. 
JUo-  ao-  i/vxio-  ^m/vi  4ao>uA^  UMa>erru  oxo-i^ 
ott  VnAAJL,  ayY\y^  Ajul  '{y.  VruL  <io-L'C  oAvoL 
HruA.  "iMayiv-aj  oAx  umXl  oyrvcL  ^^XAjJpAi/u,  vaaX 
cLo-     oax>i     ooAAxu       Iyvuvyx.      o-tt-  JrU/OO^ 


54    THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAM3IAR. 

Our  letters  should  represent  ourselves  in  our  neatest  dress 
and  with  our  very  best  manners.  Letters  are  very  often  kept, 
and  they  are  pictures  of  ourselves.  We  should  make  every 
part  of  them  neat,  arrange  them  carefully,  and  put  into  them 
our  best  and  kindest  thoughts,  so  that  if  we  see  them  again  a 
long  time  after  they  were  written,  we  need  not  be  ashamed  of 
them.  Dr.  Brooks  is  writing  to  a  very  little  girl.  He  tells 
her  something  that  will  interest  her  about  the  children  in 
Venice,  where  the  streets  are  canals,  and  the  carriages  are 
boats,  called  gondolas^  and  where  the  little  children  can  swim 
in  the  streets.  Then  he  speaks  of  her  vacation  in  the  old  home 
in  Andover,  and  tells  her  to  look  after  the  doll — which  perhaps 
is  her  own  doll — when  she  goes  into  his  house  in  Boston. 

If  we  study  this  letter,  we  shall  see  that  there  are  five  parts 
to  it. 

The  first  part  tells  where  it  was  written,  and  when  it  was 
written  : 


\J<UYUyQJl^,    eXt<WU, 


This  is  called  the  heading. 
Then  he  greets  his  niece  • 

This  is  called  the  salutation. 


THE  PARTS  OF  A   LETTER.  55 

Then  comes  the  message  that  he  writes. 
This  is  called  the  hody  of  the  letter. 

Then  he  signs  himself 

This  is  called  the  complimentary  close. 

And  last  comes  the  name,  which  is  the  signature. 

I. 
The   Heading. 

The  heading  of  a  letter  states  the  place  where,  and  the  time 
when,  the  letter  is  written.     Study  the  following  models  : 

TTUuvclb  4,  i^qn. 

J4<lA^MymX'C,  LAd^exx.  Co-.,    iTLcuiA., 

Qu/m.  1.  i§qq. 


56     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

The  arrangement  of  the  heading  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing diagram  : 

{Place  of  residence  or  husiness) 

{City^  County^  and  State) 

{Mouthy  doAj^  and  yea/r) 

When  the  heading  is  written  on  three  lines,  the  indention 
from  the  beginning  of  the  second  line  to  the  beginning  of  the 
third  should  be  the  same  as  the  indention  from  the  beginning 
of  the  first  line  to  the  beginning  of  the  second. 

Write  lieadings  for  letters  from  the  following  places,  dating 
them  on  the  day  on  which  you  write  them  : 

Denver,  Colorado ;  The  Bancroft  School,  JS'ewport,  K.  I. ; 
396  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago,  Illinois ;  "  The  Breakers,"  Bar 
Harbor,  Maine ;  49  Winslow  Street,  Plymouth,  Mass. ;  The 
Manor  House,  Stopham,  Sussex  County,  England;  The 
Holland  House,  J^ew  York,  N.  Y. ;  your  own  home ;  your 
own  school. 


II. 


The  second  part  of  the  letter  is  the  address,  that  is,  the 
name  and  title  of  the  person  or  the  firm  to  whom  the  letter  is 
addressed,  and  often  the  residence  or  place  of  business.  In 
writing  to  relatives  or  to  friends  the  address  is  omitted.  Study 
and  copy  the  following  addresses  : 


THE  PARTS  OF  A  LETTER.  57 

III. 

The  third  part  of  a  letter  is  the  salutation ;  that  is,  the 
greeting  of  affection  or  courtesy  that  introduces  the  hody  of 
the  letter. 

Study  the  following  salutations  : 

JUexxA^  a-aiJixA.:  ITl/i/|  ciexiA.Cuyyyo-VoL: 

)k)voJ\.  ^'kA.  :  lTlyv|   cUxiA,  ^lAA  : 


58     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  title  in  the  salutation  always  begins  with  a  capital  let- 
ter^ thus :  Dear  Aunt  Mary,  My  dear  Cousin  John,  My  dear 
Uncle,  My  dear  Friend,  etc. 

If  we  unite  in  proper  form  the  heading,  address,  and  saluta- 
tion, we  have  the  following  models  : 

TruiAxA  4,  i&qn. 


THE  PARTS  OF  A   LETTER.  59 

In  business  or  formal  letters,  prefix  the  title  Messrs.  to  the 
names  of  firms  ;  Mr.,  Mrs.,  or  Miss,  to  individuals  who  have  no 
other  title,  and  titles  of  position  or  honor— President,  General, 
Professor,  Honor aMe,  etc. — to  the  names  of  those  to  whom 
such  titles  belong. 

lY. 

The  fourth  part  of  a  letter  is  the  body  ;  that  is,  the  message 
that  it  conveys.  If  the  salutation  is  preceded  by  the  address, 
the  body  follows  on  the  same  line  as  the  salutation ;  if  the 
salutation  is  not  so  preceded,  the  letter  is  begun  on  the  line 
below  the  salutation,  with  a  proper  indention.  Study  the 
following  models  : 


60     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

rri/v|   cUxiA.    nX<)4yruyu: 
o-oox  trix  wiAt  cLo/vi  Q/Jx/t  ^^x^L^oni/yvo-  tniA 

cX   ^rVOyOJ-t  AX<1.<L  O-MmVL    x<iWAAy|    U>Uyrb  A/O- 


THE  PARTS  OF  A   LETTER.  61 

Y. 

The  fifth  part  of  a  letter  is  the  complimentary  close,  the 
wording  of  which  varies  with  the  relation  of  the  person  who 
writes  to  the  one  to  whom  the  letter  is  written.  To  relatives 
you  may  write  :  Your  loving  son.  Your  affectionate  daughter, 
etc.  ;  to  friends  you  may  write  :  Your  loving  friend.  Your 
sincere  friend,  etc.;  to  others  you  may  write  :  Yours  sincerely, 
Yours  respectfully.  Yours  truly,  etc. 

The  complimentary  close  should  never  be  abbreviated. 


YI. 

The  last  part  of  the  letter  is  the  signature  of  the  writer. 
This  should  be  written  very  plainly,  and  the  name  should  be 
signed  in  full  in  letters  to  those  who  are  not  relatives  or  intimate 
friends.  In  letters  to  relatives  and  intimate  friends,  however, 
one  often  signs  the  first  name  only. 

The  signature  to  a  letter  should  be  simply  the  name  of  the 
writer,  without  any  title.  The  title,  inclosed  in  brackets,  may 
precede  the  name,  or  the  full  address  with  the  proper  title 
may  be  written  at  the  left  and  slightly  below  the  signature. 

Study  the  following  models  of  the  complimentary  close  and 
signature : 


63     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


THE  PARTS  OF  A  LETTER.  G3 

\\2  UnAAA/Q/n.  ^IajuX, 
1.  ^\yY]yQJiAAA/u    omoaaAA, 


yn. 

The  envelope  should  be  addressed  with  great  plainness  and 
neatness  ;  the  stamp  placed  in.  the  upper  right-hand  corner ; 
the  name  written  across  the  middle  of  the  envelope.  Accord- 
ing to  best  usage  there  should  be  no  punctuation  marks  at  the 


64     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANOUAOE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

ends  of  the  lines,  except  to  denote  an  abbreviation,  and  the 
name  of  the  State  should  be  written  in  full. 

I.         [wi>-.  txLuo^aAyS^  C.  J^MiXe. 

rrvcuy^vTx- 

yiii. 

Envelopes  should  be  a  very  little  wider  than  the  paper. 
The  paper  should  be  folded  so  that  it  will  be  a  very  little  nar- 
rower than  the  width  of  the  envelope.  If  it  be  folded  more 
than  once,  the  upper  part  of  the  letter  should  be  the  outer  fold. 
If  paper  wider  than  the  length  of  the  envelope  is  used,  it  should 
be  folded  in  from  the  right  side  to  fit  the  length  of  the  envelope, 
before  folding  it  to  fit  the  breadth. 

Practice  in  folding,  using  cheap  brown  paper  or  even  news- 
papers, cut  to  the  sizes  of  note  and  letter  paper,  is  of  advantage 
to  pupils. 

IX. 

The  model  for  the  arrangement  of  a  letter  is  as  follows  : 


THE  PARTS  OF  A   LETTER.  65 

{Place  of  residence  or  husiness) 

{City^  CoMTity^  and  State) 

{Months  day^  and  year) 
{Name  of  person  to  whom  the  letter  is  written) 
{Address) 

{Salutation) : {Body  of  the  letter^  properly 

paragraphed) 


{Complimentary  close) 

{Name  of  writer) 

Note  :  It  will  be  of  great  advantage  in  teaching  the  proper 
form  in  letter  writing  to  have  the  pupils  draw  this  diagram 
until  they  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  arrangement, 
indentions,  and  paragraphing. 
5 


66     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER   XIII. 

LETTER-WRITING. 

Fill  out,  first,  orally,  in  the  class,  then,  in  writing,  out  of 
the  class,  the  following  abstracts  of  letters.  As  great  a  variety 
of  sentiments  as  is  possible  should  be  obtained  in  the  oral  exer- 
cise, and  these  abstracts  may  be  expanded  if,  in  the  judgment 
of  the  teacher,  it  is  best.  A  personal  letter  usually  contains 
inquiries  and  the  answers  to  inquiries,  remembrances  to  others 
of  the  family,  etc.  Since  the  nature  of  these  varies  with  the 
relation  of  the  receiver  of  the  letter  to  the  writer,  they  have 
been  omitted  in  the  abstracts.  The  teacher  will  decide  with 
the  class  to  whom  each  letter  is  to  be  sent,  what  personal  ques- 
tions shall  be  answered,  what  inquiries  shall  be  made,  and 
what  messages  sent.  She  will  teach  the  pupils  that  when 
a  letter  is  being  answered  it  should  be  looked  through  carefully 
to  see  that  every  inquiry  in  it  is  answered,  and  that  such 
messages  as  it  contains  are  properly  noticed. 

The  school  exercise  mentioned  in  the  third  abstract  is 
a  very  pleasant  one.  Each  pupil  brings  into  the  class  every  day 
something  that  he  has  seen  or  heard  that  pleasantly  interested 
him.  It  is  well  if  this  '^sunshine  diary  ^^  can  be  kept  by  each 
pupil  in  a  notebook.  To  gather  some  new  idea  each  day  and 
to  express  it  well,  will  wonderfully  broaden  the  intelligence  of 
the  pupil,  and  develop  ease  and  grace  of  expression.  Such  a 
diary  should  not  aim  above  the  simple  expression  of  simple 
things ; — what  the  pupil  notices  himself  about  bee  or  bird  or 
flower,  some  word  or  custom  or  act  that  seems  to  him  pleasant, 
is  sufficient. 


LETTER-WRITINO.  67 


When  these  letters  are  written  out  of  the  class,  each  letter 
should  be  in  full  and  proper  form  ;  then  folded  as  if  for  an 
envelope.  If  not  placed  in  an  envelope,  the  address  may  be 
placed  on  the  back  of  the  letter,  which  should  be  left  blank 
for  this  purpose.  Not  more  than  one  letter  should  be  written 
each  week,  and  it  is  better  to  write  them  less  frequently, — once 
a  fortnight, — reviewing  the  form  and  varying  the  several  parts. 
The  writing  of  the  five  forms  below,  then,  would  best  extend 
over  a  period  of  ten  weeks.  The  practice  in  letter  writing, 
however,  should  be  continued  throughout  the  whole  period  of 
the  child's  school  life. 

I. 

We  had  such walk with teacher !     We  left 

school  Friday  at  o'clock.     Went  by 

river,  through  pastures,  saw cows, came  to 

brook.  It  was  such  a  pretty  brook ! grew  be- 
side it,  and .  (Here  describe  brook.)  We  saw  how  val- 
leys are  made,  and ,  and  .     Miss taught  us 

much  about  geography,  and  names  of .     Then  we  had  a 

little  lunch.     Mamma  calls  it  a  "  picnic  lesson." 

II. 

A dog  has  come  house live.     We  heard 


barking  in  field.     Didn't  see  dog.     It  came  to  barn.     Ate 

out  of  cat's  dish.     Mamma  found  it,  so  weak  could 

hardly   stand.      Fed   it.      Lapped  hand.      Followed    into 
house.      Crept  under  table.      Father  came  home.      Said, 

"  Halloo !  who's  here  ?  "     Dog  came  out ,  jumped  over 

hands,  then  sat  up  .      Father   said  might  stay. 

Call  it  "  Maidie,"  after  Sir  Walter  Scott's  dog. 


68     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


III. 

Delighted  to  get  such  interesting  letter.     Your  account 

of  journey  to made  me  wish .     Think  you  will  be 

interested  in  new  school  exercise.     We  write  each  day 

that  has  pleasantly  interested  us.     Monday  I   saw ; 

Tuesday I  heard ;    Wednesday  I  noticed ; 

Thursday I  found ;  Friday  I  read .     We  write 

nothing  but  pleasant .     calls  it  a  "  sunshine  diary." 

How  do like  it  ? 

lY. 

Gray,  cheerless  day.     Your  letter,   however,  is  so 

sunny .     The  flower  that  came  in  it,  the  bit  of  poetry 

,  the  picture  of ,  are  like  the of 

the  daisy;  what  you  wrote  like  heart.     A  bunch  of 

is  in  vase  on  table,  and  if  the  day's  eye  out  of  doors 

is ,  there  are  twenty twinkling  in  my . 


How it  is  to  know .     Of  all  flowers  the  three  I 

like  best  are , ,  and .     I  like  the because 

,  the  because ,  and  the 

because .     I  send  you in  return 


for  the you  sent  me,  and  a  thought  with  it.     This  is 

the  thought :     The  best  kind  of  a  letter  is  one  that  makes 
us  wish  to  answer  it  at  once. 

Y. 

When  we  speak  of  traveling think going 


far  from  home.     Did  hear  traveling  

around  home  ?    Many  things  to  see  near  home.     (Here  may 


NUMBER  :  SINGULAR  AND  PLURAL  FORMS  OF  NOUNS.     69 

be  inserted  a  list  of  local  places  of  interest.)    An  old  kitchen 

just  as  it  was  many  years  ago.     Fireplace big 

great  logs settle crane.     Tin   kitchen  

to  put  before  fireplace.  Painted  tioor.  Beams  in  ceiling. 
Bunches  of  herbs.  Dresser  with  pewter  ware.  Old  chairs. 
Windows  with  many  panes.  Braided  rag  mat  on  floor. 
(A  quite  full  description  of  any  place  may  be  used  instead 
of  this  abstract  for  description  of  an  old  kitchen.) 

Abstracts  for  letters  may  be  arranged  by  the  teacher  and  put 
upon  the  board.  Suggestive  subjects  are  :  A  Visit  to  a  Circus, 
Christmas  Delights,  A  May  Party,  Fourth  of  July  in  our  Toicn, 
Our  School  Home,  Hie  Story  of  the  Neio  Picture,  A  Delightful 
Book,  My  Collection  of  Stamps,  A  Walk  with  the  Postman. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

NUMBER :    THE  SINGULAR  AND  PLURAL  FORMS  OF  NOUNS. 

Wild  bees  get  honey  in  the  early  spring  from  the  golden 
willows.  The  golden  willows  send  forth  a  sweet  perfume 
when  their  l)lossoms  open.  The  garden  rose  gives  us  a  deli- 
cious ])erfume,  but  gives  no  honey  to  the  bees.  The  little 
creatures  love  the  blossoms  of  the  raspberry  in  simimer. 
Many  bees  perish  during  the  season  of  honey  making.  A 
strong  swarm  of  bees  loses  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  a  day. 

What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  each  of  these  ?  What  words  in 
these  sentences  are  nouns  ?  Are  they  common  or  proper 
nouns  ? 

Does  the  word  hees  make  you  think  of  one  bee  or  more  than 
one?  ivilloiu?  blossoms?  roses?  creatures?  swarm? 


70     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

A  noun  that  gives  the  idea  of  one  {one  hee^  one  willow^ 
one  rose,  etc.)  is  of  singular  number. 

A  noun  that  gives  the  idea  of  more  than  one  ohject  is  of 
plural  number. 

What  nouns  in  the  above  sentences  are  of  singular  number? 
of  plural  number  ?  In  the  story  from  "  The  Song  of  Hiawa- 
tha/' name  the  nouns  and  state  of  what  number  each  is. 

1.  Singular  Plural 
bee  bees 
willow  willows 
rose  roses 
creature  creatures 
blossom  blossoms 

How  does  the  plural  form  differ  from  the  singular  in  each 
of  the  nouns  in  the  above  list  ?  In  the  same  way  form  the 
plural  of  school,  teacher,  hoy,  girl,  desk,  pen,  pencil,  crayo7i, 
hoard,  street,  car,  house,  field,  tree,  fruit,  orchard,  carriage, 
horse,  river,  ocean. 

Give  orally  sentences  containing  the  plurals  of  these  nouns. 

The  2)lural  of  most  nouns  is  formed  hy  adding  s  to  the 
singula/r. 

2.  Singular  Plural 
branch  branches 
circus  circuses 
fish  fishes 
box  boxes 
adz  adzes 
hero  heroes 


NUMBER:  SINGULAR  AND  PLURAL  FORMS  OF  NOUNS.   71 

How  does  the  plural  differ  from  the  singular  in  each  of  the 
nouns  of  this  list  ?  In  the  same  way  form  the  plural  of  stitch, 
witness,  dishy  fox,  watch,  walrus,  blush,  volcano,  potato,  glass, 
sash,  lynx,  chintz,  Irush,  church,  crocus,  lunch,  radish,  chorus, 
motto,  tomato. 

The  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  ch,  s,  sh,  x,  z^  amd  of 
many  ending  in  o  not  jpreceded  hy  a  vowel^  is  formed  hy  add- 
ing es  to  the  singular. 

The  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u. 

3.  Singula/r  Plural 

lady  ladies 

body  bodies 

fairy  fairies 

fly  flies 

city  cities 

Is  the  final  y  of  the  singular  of  these  nouns  preceded  by  a 
vowel  ?  What  are  the  vowels  ?  To  what  letter  is  the  final  y 
changed  in  forming  the  plural  ?  What  is  then  added  ?  Write 
upon  the  blackboard  the  singular  of  the  following  nouns,  and 
form  the  plural  of  each  :  colony,  ally,  shy,  spy,  factory,  heauty, 
lilyt  butterfly,  history,  fancy,  belfry,  poppy,  cherry,  treaty, 
geography,  eddy,  canopy,  memory,  variety,  treaty. 

The  plural  of  nouns  ending  in  y  not  jpreceded  by  a  'dowel 
is  formed  by  changing  the  final  y  to\  and  adding  es. 

4.  Eleven  nouns  ending  in  f  change  ftoY  and  add  es. 
These  are: 

Singula/r  Plural 

loaf  loaves 

leaf  leaves 


(2    THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


Singula/r 
sheaf 
self 
beef 
thief 
wolf 
calf 
half 
shelf 
elf 


Plural 
{Form 

the 

plurals 

of 

these.) 


5.  Three  nouns  ending  in  fe  change  f  to  v  and  add  s. 
These  are  wife,  hnife^  life.     Form  the  plural  of  each. 

6.  Thirteen  nouns  in  common  use  form   their  plurals 
irregularly.     These  are : 


Singidar 

man 

woman 

child 

brother 

ox 

goose 

foot 

tooth 

louse 

mouse 

die 


Plural 

men 

women 

children 

brothers  ) 

brethren  ) 

oxen 


feet 
teeth 
lice 
mice 
dies  ) 
dice  S 


NUMBER:  SINGULAR  AND  PLURAL  FORMS  OF  ^'OUNS.    73 


Singular 
penny 

pea 


Plural 
pennies  ] 
pence     ) 


7.  Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  the  singular  and 
plural.  Such  nouns  are  deer^  sheep,  trout^  cod,  mackerel, 
salmon. 

Note:  The  jmpils  should  learn  thoroughly  the  rules 
given  for  the  formation  of  the  plural,  and  should  apply 
them  carefully  in  form^ing  the  plurals  of  such  nouns  as  have 
occurred  in  the  previous  lessons,  and  as  are  given  in  the  list 
that  follows.  The  pupils  should  he  drilled  with  great  care 
in  the  spelling  of  hoth  the  singular  and  plural  forms,  should 
learn  the  mea/nings  of  the  words,  and  should  use  them  in 
sentences. 

Apply  the  rules  for  the  formation  of  the  plural  to  the  fol- 
lowing nouns : 


ship 

torch 

folio 

money 

colony 

torpedo 

negro 

foot 

baby 

canary 

enemy 

halo 

shoe 

canoe 

rush 

dairy 

thief 

knife 

strife 

antelope 

deer 

handkerchief 

gentleman 

foster-child 

wharf 

meanness 

rebus 

gentlewoman 

apple 

monkey 

mackerel 

daisy 

bough 

fresco 

grotto 

piano 

solo 

quarto 

cargo 

gypsy 

hoof 

prize 

shelf 

wife 

pony 

zero 

echo 

society 

74     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Sentences  for  dictation  : 

1.  The  poppies  grew  among  the  wheat  and  were  bound 
up  in  the  sheaves. 

2.  The  children  of  the  heroes  cherish  the  memories  of 
their  brave  deeds. 

3.  At  the  fair  were  dishes  of  beautiful  tomatoes,  bunches 
of  nice  radishes,  and  cans  of  cherries. 

4.  The  feet  of  the  mice  which  were  eating  the  peas  left 
tracks  on  the  shelves. 

5.  Little  kindnesses  drive  away  great  griefs. 

Complete  the  following : 

fairies    played    under tree.       table 


toadstool, cups acorn-cups.     Six  (pi.  of  butterfly) 

drew queen's .     Two  (pi.  of  fly)  in  beautiful  coats 

were  her  (pi.  of  footman).  The  little  (pi.  of  fairy)  sang  (pi. 
of  chorus)  to  greet  her  on  her  arrival,  and  (pi.  of  canopy)  of 
oak  (pi.  of  leaf)  were  placed  over  her  throne. 


CHAPTER   XV. 
THE  NUMBER  OF  NOUNS,    Continued. 

8.  Some  nouns  that  are  of  plural  form  are  of  singular 
number :  as  news^  wages^  means,  tidings,  gallows. 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  selecting  the  proper 
forms  from  those  in  the  parentheses  : 

Kews  {has,  have)  come  that  wages  {have  or  has)  been 
advanced  in  the  coal  districts. 


THE  NUMBER  OF  NOUNS.  .  75 

The  low  wages  {is,  are)  not  sufficient  to  keep  the  workers 
from  suffering. 

The  tidings  of  Nansen's  safe  return  from  his  Arctic  voyage 
(was,  tuere)  received  with  great  gladness. 

Use  each  of  the  nouns  in  No.  8  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 

9.  Some  nouns,  the  names  of  objects  consisting  of  more 
than  one  part,  are  always  of  jplural  number :  as  trousers, 
breeches,  scissors,  t/weezers,  tongs,  victuals,  scales,  shears, 
measles,  pincers. 

Complete  these  sentences  by  selecting  the  proper  forms 
from  those  in  the  parentheses : 

The  tramp's  trousers  {was,  were)  very  ragged  and  dirty. 

The  gentleman's  riding  breeches  {were,  was)  of  brown 
corduroy. 

Use  each  of  the  nouns  in  No.  9  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence. 

10.  Some  nouns  belonging  to  foreign  languages,  but  in 
use  in  English,  retain  the  foreign  form  of  the  plural:  as,  in- 
dex, indices  /  awis,  axes  /  radius,  radii  /  phenomenon,  phe- 
nomena j  crisis,  crises  I  beau,  beaux ;  tableau,  tableaux. 

11.  Tlie  plural  of  proper  nouns  is  formed  by  the  addition  of 
s  or  es  ;  this  termination  is  sometimes  added  to  the  title  and 
sometimes  to  the  name  :  the  Drs.  Smith,  the  Dr.  Smiths  ;  the 
Misses  Blake,  the  Miss  Blakes ;  the  Messrs.  Griffin,  the  Mr. 
Griffins ;  the  Marys  and  the  Marthas ;  the  four  Georges ;  the 
King  Henrys,  etc. 

12.  In  compound  nouns  (a)  consisting  of  a  noun  and  a  modi- 
fying word  or  phrase,  the  noun  is  made  plural  in  form,  i.e., 
brothers-in-law,  hangers-on,  goings-f  orth ;  (b)  consisting  of  parts 
very  closely  allied,  the  plural  sign  is  added  at  the  end,  i.e.,  hand- 


76     TIi:^  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

fuls,  spoonfuls,  pianofortes  ;  (c)  a  feiu  have  plural  forma  of  both 
parts,  i.e.,  men-servants,  women-singers,  knights-templars. 

13.  Some  nouns  when  preceded  hy  a  numeral  omit  the  plural 
sign:  a  ten-acre  lot,  a  three-foot  rule,  forty. head  of  cattle, 
three  pair  of  shoes. 

14.  The  plural  of  figures,  letters,  and  words  and  phrases, 
when  repetition  of  their  use  is  de^ioted,  is  formed  hy  the  apos- 
trophe and  s  {'s).  The  i's  and  fs  and  9's  are  carelessly  made. 
His  Fs  and  my's  and  me's  are  heard  too  often.  Her  repeated 
alas's  and  dear  me's  showed  deep  feeling. 

Put  in  sentences  the  plurals  of  the  following  words  : 
Mr.  Dana        Miss  Ames        sister-in-law        handful 
spoonful  cupful  s,  r;  t  8,  9,  6 

CHAPTER    XVI. 
SELECTIONS  FOR  STUDY. 

Note:  Mrs.  Celia  Thaxter,  the  author  of  the  following  selec- 
tions, lived  on  Appledore,  one  of  the  Isles  of  Shoals.  Here 
she  delighted  especially  in  the  wildness  of  the  ocean,  which 
dashed  often  in  great  fury  against  the  rocky  edges  of  the 
island ;  the  birds  whose  lives  were  companionship  to  her ; 
and  the  little  crowded  patch  of  blossoms  that  she  planted  and 
tended,  and  of  which  she  has  told  in  her  delightful  book, 
''  An  Island  Garden." 

I. 

The  Coming  of  the  Sandpiper. 
I  hear  the  voices  of  the  children  at  their  play,  not  far 
away.      There  are  no  other  sounds.      Suddenly  from  the 


SELECTIONS  FOR  STUDY.  77 

shore  comes  a  clear  cry  thrice  repeated,  "  Sweet,  sweet, 
sweet."  And  I  say  to  my  neighbor,  my  brother,  working 
also  in  his  garden  plot,  "The  Sandpiper — do  you  hear 
him  ? "  and  the  glad  news  goes  from  mouth  to  mouth, 
"The  Sandpiper  has  come."  Oh,  the  lovely  note,  again 
and  again  repeated,  "  Sweet,  sweet,  sweet,"  echoing  softly, 
in  the  tide-brimmed  coves  where  the  quiet  water  seems  to 
hush  itself  to  listen.  Never  so  tender  a  cry  is  uttered  by 
any  bird  I  know.  It  is  the  most  exquisitely  caressing  tone 
heard  in  the  dewy  stillness  of  morning  and  evening.  He 
has  many  and  varied  notes,  and  his  cry  of  fear  breaks  my 
heart  when  any  evil  threatens  his  beloved  nest ;  but  this 
tender  call  of  "  Sweet,  sweet,  sweet,"  is  the  most  enchant- 
ing sound,  happy  with  a  fullness  of  joy  that  never  fails  to 
bring  a  thrill  to  the  heart  that  listens.  It  is  the  voice  of 
love  itself. — From  "  An  Island  Garden,''^ 

n. 

The  Sandpiper's  I^est. 

It  was  such  a  pretty  nest,  and  in  such  a  pretty  place, 
that  I  must  tell  you  about  it. 

One  lovely  afternoon  in  May  I  had  been  wandering  up 
and  down,  through  rocky  gorges,  by  little  swampy  bits  of 
ground,  and  on  the  rocky  headlands,  looking  for  flowers, 
and  I  had  found  many. 

Presently  I  came  to  the  edge  of  a  little  beach,  where  I 
was  startled  by  the  sound  of  such  terror  and  distress  that  it 
went  to  my  heart  at  once.  In  a  few  moments  a  poor  little 
sandpiper  emerged  from  the  bushes,  dragging  itself  along 


78     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

in  such  a  way  that,  had  you  seen  it,  you  would  have  be- 
lieved that  every  bone  in  its  body  had  been  broken.  Such 
a  dilapidated  bird !  Its  wings  drooped,  and  its  legs  hung 
as  if  almost  lifeless.  It  uttered  continually  a  shrill  cry  of 
pain,  and  kept  just  out  of  reach  of  my  hand,  fluttering 
hither  and  thither  as  if  sore- wounded  and  weary.  At  first 
I  was  amazed,  and  cried  out,  "Why,  friend  and  gossip! 
what  is  the  matter  ? "  and  then  stood  watching  it  in  dis- 
may. Suddenly  it  flashed  upon  me  that  this  was  only  my 
sandj^iper's  way  of  concealing  from  me  a  nest.  The  object 
was  to  make  me  follow  her  by  pretending  that  she  could 
not  fly,  and  so  lead  me  away  from  her  treasure.  So  I  stood 
perfectly  still,  lest  I  should  tread  upon  her  precious  habita- 
tion, and  quietly  observed  my  deceitful  friend.  "Dear 
gossip,"  I  called  to  her,  "  pray  don't  give  yourself  so  much 
unnecessary  trouble!  You  might  know  I  wouldn't  hurt 
you  or  your  nest  for  the  world,  you  most  absurd  of  birds  !  " 
As  if  she  understood  me,  she  rose  up  at  once,  strong  and 
graceful,  and  flew  off  with  a  full,  round,  clear  note,  deli- 
cious to  hear. 

Then  I  cautiously  looked  for  the  nest,  and  found  it 
quite  close  to  my  feet,  near  the  stem  of  a  stunted  bayberry 
bush.  Mrs.  Sandpiper  had  only  drawn  together  a  few  bay- 
berry  leaves,  brown  and  glossy,  a  little  pale  green  lichen, 
and  a  twig  or  two,  and  that  was  a  pretty  enough  nest  for 
her.  Four  eggs,  about  as  large  as  robins',  were  within,  all 
laid  evenly  with  the  small  ends  together,  as  is  the  tidy 
fashion  of  the  sandpiper  family.  ]^o  wonder  I  did  not  see 
them,  for  they  were  pale  green  like  the  lichen,  with  brown 
spots  the  color  of  the  leaves  and  twigs,  and  they  seemed  a 


SELECTIONS  FOR  STUDY.  79 

part  of  the  ground,  with  its  confusion  of  soft  neutral  tints. 
I  could  not  admire  them  enough,  but,  to  relieve  my  little 
friend's  anxiety,  I  very  soon  came  away,  and  as  I  came  I 
marveled  much  that  so  very  small  a  head  should  contain 
such  an  amount  of  cunning. 

Subjects  for  conversation: 

A  description  of  the  island  as  it  is  spoken  of  in  this  sketch. 
What  expressions  tell  us  about  the  island  ? 

Describe  the  appearance  of  the  sandpiper  as  Mrs.  Thaxter 
first  saw  it.  Contrast  that  description  with  its  appearance  after 
she  assured  it  that  she  would  do  it  no  harm. 

Do  sandpipers  reason  ?  Did  he  reason  that  she  was  search- 
ing for  his  nest  ?  Did  you  ever  notice  any  animal — a  dog  or 
a  cat — trying  to  deceive  ? 

Describe  the  nest  and  the  eggs.  How  did  the  sandpiper  try 
to  conceal  its  eggs  ?  Do  any  other  birds  try  to  conceal  their 
nests  ?    How  ? 

Make  a  list  of  ten  words  that  are  new  words  to  you.  Care- 
fully look  up  the  meaning  of  each  in  the  dictionary.  Use  each 
in  a  sentence. 

Note  :  The  selection  may  he  used  also  for  a  review  of  such 
grammatical  principles  as  have  been  learned. 


80     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

III. 
POEM  FOR  MEMORY. 
The  Sandpiper. 
Across  the  narrow  beach  we  flit, 

One  little  sandpiper  and  I ; 
And  fast  I  gather,  bit  by  bit, 

The  scattered  driftwood,  bleached  and  dry : 
The  wild  waves  reach  their  hands  for  it. 
The  wild  wind  raves,  the  tide  runs  high, 
As  up  and  down  the  beach  we  flit — 
The  little  sandpiper  and  I. 

Above  our  heads  the  sullen  clouds 
Scud  thick  and  swift  across  the  sky ; 

Like  silent  ghosts  in  misty  shrouds 
Stand  out  the  white  lighthouses  high. 

Almost  as  far  as  eye  can  reach 

I  see  the  close-reefed  vessels  fly. 
As  up  arid  down  the  beach  we  flit — 
The  little  sandpiper  and  I. 

I  watch  him  as  he  skims  along. 

Uttering  his  sweet  and  mournful  cry ; 

He  starts  not  at  my  fitful  song. 
Or  flash  of  floating  drapery. 

He  has  no  fear  of  any  wrong. 

He  scans  me  with  a  fearless  eye ; 

Staunch  friends  are  we,  well  tried  and  strong — 
The  little  sandpiper  and  I. 


THE  POSSESSIVE  FORM  OF  NOUNS.  81 

Comrade,  where  wilt  thou  be  to-night, 
When  the  wild  storm  breaks  fm'iously  ? 

My  driftwood  fire  will  bm*n  so  bright — 
To  what  warm  shelter  canst  thou  fly  ? 

I  do  not  fear  for  thee,  though  wroth 

The  tempest  rushes  through  the  sky. 
For  are  we  not  God's  children  both — 
Thou,  little  sandpiper,  and  I  ? 

The  subject  of  "  The  Sandpiper"  may  well  be  completed  by 
reading  to  the  class  another  of  Mrs.  Thaxter^s  poems,  ''  The 
Wounded  Curlew  " 

CHAPTER    XVII. 
THE  POSSESSIVE  FORM  OF  NOUNS. 

I. 
Robert's  dog  is  a  Scotch  collie  named  Bruce.  He  is  the 
boy's  playmate.  He  likes  to  carry  the  children's  baskets, 
and  in  the  winter  he  goes  coasting  with  them.  He  runs, 
barking  in  his  delight,  down  the  hill,  and  hauls  the  little 
girls'  sleds  back  to  the  top. 

What  noun  tells  whose  dog  Bruce  is  ?  How  is  it  spelled  ? 
What  noun  tells  whose  playmate  he  is  ?  How  is  it  spelled  ? 
What  noun  tells  who  owns  the  baskets  ?  How  is  it  spelled  ? 
What  noun  tells  who  own  the  sleds  ?    How  is  it  spelled  ? 

Each  of  these  nouns  denotes  the  owner  or  possessor.      How 
is  the  spelling  of  Robert  changed  to  denote  that  he  is  the  pos- 
sessor of  something  ?    How  is  the  spelling  of  boy  changed  to 
denote  possession  ?  childreii  ?  girls  9 
6 


82     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRA31MAR. 

Whe7i  tliefoTTTh  of  a  noun  indicates  ownership  or  posses- 
sion, it  is  called  the  possessive  form. 

Notice  how  these  possessive  forms  are  made  : 


Singul 

'or 

Plural 

man 

man's 

men 

men's 

lady 

lady's 

ladies 

ladies' 

ox 

ox's 

oxen 

oxen's 

story 

story's 

stories 

stories' 

Charles 

Charles's 

What  is  added  to  each  singular  noun  to  form  the  posses- 
sive ?  What  is  added  to  each  plural  noun  7iot  eliding  in  s  ? 
What  is  added  to  each  plural  noun  ending  in  s  ? 

Form  in  like  manner  the  possessives  of  mother,  sisters,  fairy, 
fairies,  wolves,  fly,  Margaret,  Gladys,  Miss  WilTcins,  Use  the 
possessives  of  these  nouns  in  the  order  in  which  they  are  given 
in  the  following  sentences  : 

Washington,  when  a  boy,  obeyed  his wishes. 

Richard  carried  his  little books. 

The kindness  brought  the  coach  to  Cinderella. 

The howling  could  be  heard  throughout  the  long 

winter  nights. 

The eye  is  wonderful. 

favorite  book  is  "  Beautiful  Joe." 

• vacation  was  spent  among  the  White  Mountains. 

Ethel  is  reading  one  of stories. 

Note  :  These  sentences  should  be  made  complete  orally, 
and  then  given  as  dictation  sentences  to  be  written  by  the 
pupils. 


THE  POSSESSIVE  FORM  OF  NOUNS.  83 

The  possessives  of  nouns  are  formed  hy  the  addition  of 
the  apostrophe  and  s  ('«),  except  that  plural  nouns  ending  in 
s  add  the  apostrophe  only. 

The  possessive  termination  of  singular  nouns  ending  in  s  or 
z  is  pronounced  ez,  thus  :  Miss  Noyes's  is  pronounced  Miss 
Noyes-ez,  Mr.  Brooks's  is  pronounced  Mr.  Brooks-ez,  etc. 

When  the  addition  of  the  apostrophe  and  s  would  give  a 
succession  of  more  than  two  s  or  z  sounds,  the  apostrophe  only 
is  added,  thus:  Moses',  Jesus',  etc. 

II. 

1.  "Master  Skylark"  is  the  name  of  John  Bennett's 
first  story. 

2.  Mrs.  Harriet  Prescott  Spofford's  home  is  on  Deer 
Island  in  the  Merrimack  river. 

3.  William  Brown,  Esquire's,  name  is  written  in  a  plain 
hand  on  the  fly  leaf. 

4.  Blake  the  blacksmith's  little  lad  has  won  a  medal 
for  bravery. 

5.  Kipling  the  story-teller's  books  have  a  large  sale. 

6.  Messrs.  Dodd,  Mead  &  Company's  store  is  on  Fifth 
Avenue,  Kew  York. 

7.  Nicolay  and  Hay's  "  Life  of  Lincoln  "  is  very  com- 
plete. 

The  possessive  sign  is  added  to  the  last  of  a  combination 
of  names  (1),  of  names  amd  titles  (2  am,d  3),  of  namss  and 
descriptive  words,  designating  an  individual  (4  amd  5),  of 
those  forming  thefrm  name  (6),  amd  of  those  denoting  joint 
ownership  or  authorship  (7). 


84     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

Change  the  groups  of  words  in  italics  in  the  following  sen- 
tences into  possessive  forms  : 

The  life  of  Sir  Philip  Sydney  was  full  of  noble  deeds. 
This  house  is  owned  by  Bev.  Arthur  Goodwin,  D.D. 
The  new  store  of    Wilson  c§  Low  will  be    opened    to- 
morrow. 

This  was  the  island  garden  of  Mrs.  Thaxter,  the  poet. 
That  is  the  office  of  the  Governor  of  Massachusetts. 
Cedric  is  the  brother  of  GustaA)a,  the  little  lamie  girl. 


III. 

"While  it  is  correct  to  use  the  possessive  form  of  nouns  that 
are  not  the  names  of  beings  that  have  life,  it  is  in  better  usage 

to  use  the  possessive  phrase  of .     Thus,  it  is  in  better  usage 

to  say  "  The  strength  of  England  lies  largely  in  her  navy,"  than 
^^ England's  strength  lies  largely  in  her  navy";  "the  color  of 
gold"  than  "gold's  color";  "the  puUic  buildings  of  Wash- 
ington," than  "Washington's  public  buildings." 

Change  to  better  usage  : 

Boston's  old  streets  are  very  crooked. 

San  Francisco  Bay's  entrance  is  called  "The  Golden 
Gate." 

The  emerald's  color  is  green,  the  ruby's  color  is  red,  and 
the  topaz's  color  is  yellow. 

The  moon's  distance  from  the  earth  is  a  little  less  than 
240,000  miles. 

The  Journey's  end;  the  arrow's  flight;  the  star's  bril- 
liancy ;  the  earth's  yearly  journey  ;  the  picture's  beauty. 


THE  PARAGRAPH.  85 


The  expressions  anybody  else,  somebody  else,  nobody  else, 
etc.,  are  regarded  as  liaving  the  value  of  one  word,  and  their 
possessive  form  is  made  by  adding  's  to  the  word  else,  thus  : 
anybody  else's,  nobody  else's,  etc. 

Sentences  for  dictation  : 

1.  Flowers  are  more  beautiful  than  birds  on  ladies' 
hats. 

2.  The  humming-bird's  beauty  has  won  him  the  name 
of  a  jewel  with  wings. 

3.  Master  Skylark's  real  name  was  Nick  Attwood. 

4.  His  mother's  smile  was  more  to  him  than  the  Queen 
of  England's  favor. 

5.  Mrs.  James's  roses  grow  larger  than  Mr.  Adams's. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
THE   PARAGRAPH. 

1.  The  male  bird  usually  selects  the  place  for  a  nest. 

2.  He  assists  the  female  in  hatching  the  eggs. 

3.  He  feeds  the  little  ones,  and  teaches  them  to  fly  and 
to  hunt  for  food. 

4.  His  plumage  is  usually  much  brighter  than  that  of 
the  female. 

5.  The  female's  colors  are  less  bright,  so  that  she  will 
not  be  easily  seen  when  on  the  nest. 

When  our  thoughts  are  closely  connected  with  one  subject 
we  do  not  separate  them  as  in  the  above  sentences,  but  we 
unite  them  closely  in  a  paragraph,  as  follows  : 


86     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  male  bird  usually  selects  the  place  for  a  nest.  He 
assists  the  female  in  hatching  the  eggs.  He  feeds  the  little 
ones,  and  teaches  them  to  fly  and  to  hunt  for  food.  His 
plumage  is  brighter  than  that  of  the  female.  Her  colors  are 
less  bright  so  that  she  may  not  be  so  easily  seen  when  on 
the  nest. 

A  paragraph  always  begins  on  a  new  line,  and  has  an  inden- 
tion at  its  beginning ;  that  is,  a  blank  space  at  the  beginning 
of  its  first  line.  The  diagram  of  a  paragraph,  which  should 
be  carefully  drawn  by  the  pupils,  is  as  follows : 


Write  the  sentences  at  the  beginning  of  Chapter  I.  as  a 
paragraph. 

Arrange  paragraphs  from  the  sentences  in  Divisions  II., 
III.,  and  v.,  in  Chapter  I. 

Fill  out  the  following  sentences  and  write  them  in  para- 
graphs : 

I. 

An  Qgg  wonderful  thing. 

has shape gives  its  greatest  strength. 

Its  color,  whether , ,  or ,  is  always  beautiful. 

Its  shell  has  a  lining,  tough  but as  silk. 

And  within  is  what  may  be  a  life  clothed  with  beauty 
and  overflowing  with  song. 


THE  GENDER  OF  NOUNS.  87 

II. 

A  beautiful  humming-bird . 

Its  wings . 

It  found  its  food trumpet  flowers. 

Then  it  flew  to  the  gay . 

It  alighted  for  a  moment  on  a  string  that  was  stretched 
about  the  flowers,  and  looked  at  me  with  a  great  deal  of 
curiosity.     I  wonder  what  it  thought  of  me. 

III. 

The  snow  came wool. 

It  filled  the full. 

It  covered ,  it  hid . 


It  lay grass  like light. 

And  made  the  old  earth  look  clean  and 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
THE  GENDER  OF  NOUNS. 


1.  In  olden  times  the  men  sat  on  one  side  of  the  meeting 
house,  and  the  women  on  the  other. 

2.  The  children  were  taught  to  do  useful  work — the 
girls  to  spin  and  weave,  the  boys  to  do  the  work  of  the  farm 
or  of  some  trade. 

3.  Did  you  ever  see  the  warming  pans,  the  foot  stoves, 
or  the  spinning  wheels  that  were  used  in  those  days  ? 

4.  The  birds  were  very  busy  this  morning — the  mother- 
bird  in  watching  her  brood,  the  father-bird  in  getting  them 
food. 


88     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

5.  The  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales,  with  the  Duke 
and  Duchess  of  York,  were  present  at  the  celebration. 

All  living  beings  are  either  male  or  female.  When  a 
noun  is  the  name  of  a  male  heing^  the  noun  is  of  masculine 
gender ;  of  a  female  heing,  it  is  of  feminine  gender. 

A  noun  that  is  the  name  of  a  living  heing,  hut  hy  its 
form  does  not  show  whether  male  or  female,  is  of  common 
gender. 

A  7ioun  that  is  the  name  of  something  that  has  no  sex—^ 
is  neither  nfiale  nor  female — is  of  neuter  gender.  The 
word  neuter  means  neither. 

In  the  above  sentences  what  nouns  of  masculine  gender  do 
you  find  ?  of  feminine  gender  ?  of  common  gender  ?  of  neuter 
gender?  Of  what  gender  is  hirdsf  father-Mrdf  mother- 
Hrd  f  What  shows  the  gender  of  the  last  two  words  ?  What 
is  the  gender  of  Prince  f  What  is  the  feminine  form  that  cor- 
responds to  it  ?  What  is  the  gender  of  Duchess  9  What  is  the 
masculine  form  that  corresponds  to  it  ? 

The  following  are  some  nouns  in  common  use,  in  which  the 
masculine  and  feminine  forms  correspond  : 


Masculine 

Feminine 

Masculine 

Feminine 

father 

mother 

king 

queen 

brother 

sister 

emperor 

empress 

son 

daughter 

prince 

princess 

uncle 

aunt 

duke 

duchess 

niece 

nephew 

marquis 

marchioness 

husband 

wife 

earl 

countess 

REVIEW. 

89 

Masculine 

Feminine 

Masculine 

Feminine 

groom 

bride 

lord 

lady 

host 

hostess 

beau 

belle 

horse 

mare 

manservant 

maidservant 

ram 

ewe 

he-goat 

she-goat 

lion 

lioness 

tiger 

tigress 

Jew 

Jewess 

drake 

duck 

Francis 

Frances 

gander 

goose 

Louis 

Louisa 

Of  what  gend 

er  is  each  of  the 

)  following  nouns  ? 

housewife 

maiden 

lover 

cousin 

maid 

youth 

blacksmith 

hare 

squirrel 

priest 

nun 

women 

poet 

Frenchman 

Italian 

crow 

cattle 

elephant 

chicken 

pullet 

Josephine 

Paul 

)^^m 

teacher 

family 

child 

author 

master 

mistress 

poet 

bachelor 

pupil 

CHAPTER   XX. 
REVIEW. 

Write  the  complete  heading,  giving  name  of  school,  place, 
and  date.  What  is  the  abbreviation  of  the  month  ?  of  the 
day  ?  How  many  days  has  this  month  ?  Write  the  season  of 
the  year.     What  pleasant  things  in  this  season  ? 

If  you  were  to  teach  some  one  how  to  write  a  letter,  what 
directions  would  you  give  him  ?      (The  teacher  can   aid  the 


90    TEE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

pupils  to  arrange  in  order  the  suggestions  that  they  offer. 
Training  in  orderly  tliinhing — sequence — is  invaluable. )  Write 
in  proper  form  and  order  on  the  board  the  several  parts  of  a 
letter,  written  in  this  school,  to-day,  addressed  to  the  chair- 
man of  the  committee  for,  this  school,  and  signed  by  the  writer. 
What  can  you  tell  him  of  interest  for  the  body  of  the  letter  ? 
Write  on  the  board  the  proper  address  for  the  envelope.  Show 
where  the  stamp  should  be  placed.  Draw  on  the  board  a 
model  for  the  arrangement  of  a  letter.  (The  lines  should  be 
drawn  straight  with  a  blackboard  ruler.)  What  is  the  ''^sun- 
shine diary  "  ? 

Give  each  one  noun  and  tell  how  to  form  its  plural.  Write 
the  singular  and  plural  forms  on  the  board.  In  how  many  dif- 
ferent ways  is  the  plural  of  nouns  formed  ?  Give  examples  of 
each.     Why  are  scissors,  tongs,  scales,  always  plural  ? 

Tell  the  story  of  the  sandpiper's  nest. 

Write  a  noun  on  the  board  and  show  how  its  possessive  form 
is  made.  Show  how  the  possessive  form  of  the  singular  and  of 
the  plural  is  made  from  each  of  these  nouns  :  lily,  wolf,  Mr. 
Harris,  guardsman,  valley,  hooh-luyer,  mouse,  fish,  lily  of  the 
valley,  manservant. 

Of  what  gender  is  each  of  the  above  nouns  ?  Give  the  cor- 
responding forms,  masculine  or  feminine,  of  any  of  the  nouns 
in  the  list  in  the  preceding  lesson. 


THE  ADJECTIVE.  91 


CHAPTER  XXI. 
THE  ADJECTIVE. 

I. 

Under  a  spreading  chestnut  tree 

The  village  smithy  stands ; 
The  smith,  a  mighty  man  is  he, 

With  large  and  sine\7y  hands, 
And  the  muscles  of  his  brawny  arms 

Are  strong  as  iron  bands. 

His  hair  is  crisp,  and  black,  and  long, 

His  face  is  like  the  tan; 
His  brow  is  wet  with  honest  sweat ; 

He  earns  whate'er  he  can, 
And  looks  the  whole  world  in  the  face, 

For  he  owes  not  any  man. 

—From  *'The  Village  Blacksmith,"  by 
Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow. 

Name  the  nouns  in  the  above  stanzas.  What  words  describe 
the  first  noun  ?  What  does  smithy  mean  ?  What  word  de- 
scribes it  ?  W^hat  word  is  used  to  describe  man  in  the  third 
line  ?  What  kind  of  hands  did  he  have  ?  What  word  describes 
arms  in  the  fifth  line  ?  What  does  brawny  mean  ?  What  de- 
scriptive words  in  the  sixth  line  ?  What  are  strong  ?  What, 
then,  does  strong  describe  ?  What  does  iron  describe  ?  Write 
on  the  board  in  a  vertical  column  the  nouns  in  the  first  stanza, 
and  place  before  each  the  word  or  words  that  are  used  to 
describe  it.     Do  the  same  with  the  nouns  in  the  second  stanza. 


92     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Give  a  sentence  using  large  to  describe  house  ;  using  small 
to  describe  house  ;  using  hlach  to  describe  something  that  we 
burn ;  something  that  we  use  in  school  ;  using  wliite  to  de- 
scribe something  that  we  may  see  in  winter  ;  something  that  we 
use  in  school ;  using  each  of  the  following  words  to  describe 
something  :  happy,  sweet,  good,  leautiful,  light,  interesting, 
cross.  Hue,  patient,  ripe,  round,  bright,  glad.  What  word  de- 
notes a  quality  the  opposite  of  happy  ?  sweet  ?  good  9  beautiful  f 
Put  into  sentences  the  words  that  denote  these  opposite  quali- 
ties. 

Words  that  describe  are  adjectives, 

II. 

1.  The  twenty-third  psalm  is  called  the  Shepherd 
Psalm. 

2.  In  yonder  meadows  the  sheep  are  grazing. 

3.  These  daisies  were  picked  near  the  birthplace  of 
John  a.  Whittier. 

4.  That  face  looks  very  mischievous,  thought  Pan- 
dora. 

5.  Those  mountains  are  the  Alps. 

What  word  points  out  the  psalm  ?  the  meadows  ?  the  dai- 
sies ?  the  face  ?  the  mountains  ? 

Words  that  designate  {point  out)  a  particular  object  are 


III. 

1.  There  were  four  pale  eggs  in  the  sandpiper's  nest. 

2.  Some  flowers  have  beauty  but  no  fragrance. 

3.  "  Then  the  little  Hiawatha 

Learned  of  every  bird  its  language." 


THE  ADJECTIVE.  93 


4.  Each  star  in  the  sky  is  a  fiery  sun. 

5.  All  living  creatures  should  be  treated  kindly. 

How  many  eggs  were  in  the  nest  ?  How  many  flowers  are 
spoken  of  ?  Of  how  many  birds  did  Hiawatha  learn  the  lan- 
guage ?  Hoio  many  stars  in  the  sky  are  fiery  suns  ?  How  many 
animals  should  be  treated  kindly  ? 

Words  that  limit  {tell  how  many)  are  adjectives. 

A  word  that  is  used  to  descrihe,  to  designate^  or  to  limit  a 
pa/rtioula/r  noim  is  a/n  adjective. 

Name  the  adjectives  in  the  following  selections,  and  state 
whether  they  describe,  designate,  or  limit,  the  noun  which  each 
modifies  : 

1.  Is  there  a  nicer  place  in  which  to  play  than  an  old 
apple  orchard  ?  In  the  lightly  swinging  branches  you  find 
prancing  horses,  and  on  many  a  mad  ride  they  carry  you. 
The  larger  ones  are  steep  paths  leading  up  mountain  sides. 
— Ah !  it  is  good  to  get  into  the  cool  of  the  dear  friendly 
trees.  And  just  now,  more  than  ever,  they  seem  friendly 
to  you,  boys  and  girls ;  for  they  are  heavy  with  apples — 
beautiful  red  and  golden  apples,  that  tempt  you  to  clamber 
up  into  the  green  sea  of  leaves  above. 

—From  "  Plants  and  their  Children,"  by  Mrs.  Dana. 

2.  This  flower  is  the  most  sociable  of  all  flowers.  It  is 
the  starry  innocent,  the  Houstonia.  It  is  fond  of  dwelling 
with  many  friends  about  it.  And  so  you  will  find  a  whole 
family  of  them  living  so  close  together  that  the  ground  is 
white  with  their  delicate  beauty.  In  the  space  of  a  few 
inches  there  are  a  thousand  blossoms,  and  each  of  these  lit- 


94     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR 

tie  flowers  is  as  perfect  as  if  the  warm  sun  and  the  soft  rain 
and  the  gentle  breezes  nourished  it  alone. 

3.  I^ear  yonder  copse  the  village  preacher's  modest 
mansion  rose. 

4.  These  little  flowers  of  the  air  are  humming-birds. 

5.  Twelve  articles  are  a  dozen ;  twenty  articles  are  a 
score ;  a  hundred  years  are  a  century. 

lY. 

The  words  the,  a,  an,  are  classified  properly  as  adjectives, 
but  are  called  articles. 

Tlie  is  used  to  give  definiteness  (to  denote  a  particular  object) 
to  the  noun  which  it  modifies^  and  it  is  called  the  definite  article. 

1.  The  girl  had  learned  the  names  of  all  the  common 
wild  flowers. 

2.  The  boys  carried  the  Christmas  tree  to  the  church. 

Sometimes  it  is  used  to  show  that  the  genus,  or  class  of 
objects,  is  meant. 

The  song  of  the  robin  is  a  cheerful  sound;  meaning  not  one 
robin,  but  robins  as  a  gerius. 

The  vice  of  the  swearer  is  a  repulsive  one;  meaning  not 
one  man  who  swears,  but  the  class  of  men  who  swear. 

Frequently  the  is  used  before  titles  : 

The  Duke  of  York  ;  the  Eev.  Lyman  Abbott. 

A  and  a7i  are  indefinite  articles,  and  are  used  with  singular 
nouns  only.  An  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  any 
vowel  sound  except  U,  and  a  before  all  consonant  sounds,  and 
the  sound  of  H.  Words  beginning  with  h  and  accented  on  the 
second  syllable  are  preceded  by  an  instead  of  a. 


THE  CAREFUL   USE  OF  ADJECTIVES.  95 

Place  the  proper  form,  a  or  a7i,  before  the  following 
nouns  : 

Apple,  echo,  idea,  ocean,  undercurrent,  union,  European, 
utter  failure,  house,  historical  novel,  history,  field,  good 
idea,  strong  undercurrent,  orang-outang,  humble  romance, 
wharf,  hotel,  youth. 

An  adjecti/ve  derived  from  a  proper  noun  hegin^  with  a 
capital  letter : 

The  American  spirit;  the  English  pride;  the  Spanish 
soldiers ;  the  Mosaic  law ;  the  Jewish  religion ;  Websterian 
oratory ;  Koman  art. 

YI. 

Use  adjectives  to  describe  the  shy,  the  grass,  a  geramium 
leaf,  a  winter  day,  a  suminer  day  /  to  point  out  some  hook  in 
the  room,  some  hoy  in  the  class,  something  that  is  near  you, 
something  that  is  away  from  you  y  to  limit  trees,  rivers, 
hills,  seasons,  men. 


CHAPTER    XXII. 

THE    CAREFUL    USE   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

{A  Chapter  for  Conversation  with  the  Class.) 

I. 

While  we  are  learning  about  adjectives,  we  should  also  try 
to  learn  to  use  them  correctly.  Some  people  who  are  careless 
in  their  use  of  language  use  certain  adjectives  to  describe 
almost  everything.  They  have  an  elegant  time,  the  cake  is 
elegant,  flowers  are   elegant,  the  song  of  the  bird  is  elegant ; 


96     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRA3IMAR. 

almost  everything  that  pleases  them  is  elega7it.  But  if  an 
excursion  has  given  us  pleasure  or  delight  it  is  better 
to  speak  of  it  as  a  pleasant  or  delightful  time ;  if  the  cake 
pleases  our  taste  we  may  say  that  it  is  delicious ;  flowers  are 
beautiful  J  the  song  of  the  bird  may  be  stveet  or  musical. 

Lovely  is  another  overworked  adjective.  Whatever  draws 
our  love  or  admiration  is  lovely, — a  mother's  smile,  an  act  of 
kindness,  a  face  that  shows  beauty  of  soul.  But  a  dress  is  not 
lovely  but  beautiful,  candy  is  not  lovely,  a  house  is  not  lovely 
but  handsome,  a  tree  is  not  lovely  but  beautiful  or  graceful. 

A  beautiful  face  is  one  that  is  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  that 
shows  nobility  of  character ;  a  handsome  face  is  one  the 
features  of  which  are  good  and  well  proportioned  ;  a  pretty 
face  is  one  that  has  softness  and  delicacy,  like  that  of  a  child. 
Beauty  means  much  more  to  us  than  mere  prettiness. 

Mountains  are  grand  because  they  are  of  striking  magni- 
tude ;  sunsets  are  often  gorgeous  because  they  are  brilliant  in 
color ;  an  accident  or  a  thunderstorm  may  be  awful,  because 
it  causes  the  feeling  of  awe.  Can  we  correctly  say  that  a 
hat  is  awfully  pretty  ?    that  a  person  is  dreadfully  proud  ? 

We  should  avoid  extravagant  expressions,  such  as  perfectly 
lovely,  perfectly  awful,  etc. 

We  should  avoid  the  use  of  slang.  We  should  be  as  careful 
to  have  our  speech  clean  as  to  have  our  faces  or  clothes  clean, 
and  slang  in  our  speech  is  like  mud  on  our  faces  or  garments. 

II. 

Discuss  the  differences  in  meaning  and  the  correct  use  of 
the  following  groups  of  adjectives  : 

Latest;  Last.  The  boy  who  came  latest  stands  last  in 
the  line. 


THi:  CAREFUL   USE  OF  ADJECTIVES,  97 

Many  •  Much.  Mcmy  boys  spend  too  much  money  for 
trifles. 

Bound  /  Determined.  If  I  am  not  hound  to  help  him,  I 
am  determined  to  help  him.  {Bound  means  under  necessity^ 
determined  means  resolved.) 

Mut^cal  y  Common.  The  love  of  the  mother  and  daugh- 
ter is  mutual.  (Each  gives  love  to,  and  receives  it  from,  the 
other.)  • 

The  little  pony  is  the  common  property  of  the  two  broth- 
ers.    (It  belongs  to  both  of  them.) 

Odd ;  Funny.  The  shape  of  this  book  is  odd  (miusual), 
and  the  pictures  in  it  dcc^fwnny  (causing  mirth). 

Mad ;  Angry.  The  boy  is  not  mad  (insane) ;  he  is  only 
cmgry. 

Prominent ;  Eminent.  He  is  a  promine7it  (attracting 
notice)  citizen,  but  not  an  eminent  (highly  distinguished,  in 
a  good  sense)  one. 

Continual  •  Continuous.  The  dropping  of  the  water  is 
continual  (an  act  constantly  repeated) ;  the  roaring  of  the 
torrent  is  cmitinuous  (uninterrupted). 

Liable  /  Likely.  If  you  do  ivrong  you  are  liable  to  (sub- 
ject to,  exposed  to)  punishment. 

It  is  likely  (probable)  that  to-morrow  will  be  a  holiday. 

Healihfid ',  Healthy ;  Wholesome.  Healthfid  (produc- 
ing health)  exercise  and  wholesome  (promoting  health)  food 
make  healthy  (in  good  health)  bodies. 


98     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

III. 

Select  proper    adjectives   for  the  blanks  in  the  following 
sentences  : 

1.  The  journey  was  a one ;  the  people  were , 

the  refreshments ,  the  scenery ,  and  the  weather . 

2.  It  was  such  a babe,  and  the  love  of  the  mother 

made  her  face .   The  father's  face  was ,  but  showed 

no  marked  character. 

3.  The  procession  was  • ,  the  fireworks ,  but  the 

noise  of  the  cannon  was . 

4.  The  boy  was not  to  be  the in  his  class. 

6.     The taunts  made  the  man . 

6.  The  dress  of  the  clown  was  very ;  his  perform- 
ance very . 

7.  Eat food ;  take exercise ;  and  so  grow  into 

a man. 

8.  He  is  our friend. 

9.  To  be in  a  community  is  honorable ;  to  be 

is  not  always  so. 

Give  original  sentences  using  correctly  the  adjectives  in  No.  II. 

CHAPTER   XXIIl. 
THE  VERB. 

I. 

1.  Barn  swallows  build  their  nests  of  mud. 

2.  The  tailor  bird  sews  leaves  together  for  his  nest. 

3.  Night  hawks  lay  their  eggs  on  the  bare  ground. 


THE   VERB.  99 


4.  The  blue  jay  robs  the  nests  of  other  birds. 

5.  The  chimney  swifts  glue  their  nests  to  the  inside  of 
chimneys. 

What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  each  of  these  ?  What  is  the 
subject  of  the  first  sentence  ?  the  predicate  ?  What  one  |rord 
in  the  first  sentence  tells  the  action  of  the  barn  swallows  ? 
What  word  in  the  second  sentence  tells  the  action  of  the  tailor 
bird  ?  AVhat  word  expresses  action  in  the  third  sentence  ?  in 
the  fourth  ?  in  the  fifth  ?  Write  these  action-words  on  the 
board.  Write  before  each  the  subject — the  word  that  shows 
what  acts. 

A  word  that  expresses  action  exerted  hy  the  svhject  of  a 
sentence  is  a  verh. 

AVhat  is  the  verb  in  the  first  sentence  ?  the  second  ?  the 
third  ?  the  fourth  ?  the  fifth  ? 

Find  the  verbs  in  the  selection  on  p.  15,  from  *'Wild 
Geese/'  by  Celia  Thaxter. 

II. 

1.  This  branch  was  broken  from  the  cherry  tree. 

2.  An  oriole's  nest  has  been  hung  from  it. 

3.  The  eggs  have  been  hatched. 

4.  The  nest  has  been  left  by  the  birds. 

5.  It  has  been  torn  by  the  wind. 

What  is  the  subject  of  each  sentence  ?  the  predicate  ? 

What  two  words  in  the  first  sentence  tell  the  action  received 
by  the  branch  ?  What  three  words  in  the  second  sentence  tell 
what  action  has  been  received  by  the  nest  ?  What  words  denote 
action  received  in  the  third  sentence  ?  in  the  fourth  ?  in  the 
fifth? 


100     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

A  word  or  group  of  luords  that  tells  the  action  received  hy 
the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  verb. 

Write  a  list  of  the  verbs  in  the  preceding  sentences.  "Write 
before  each  verb  its  subject. 

Find  the  verbs  in  these  sentences  : 

1.  Washington  has  been  praised  for  his  truthfulness. 

2.  The  bees  are  invited  by  the  flowers  to  visit  them. 

3.  The  sandpiper  has  been  lamed  by  a  stone. 

4.  The  stone  was  thrown  by  a  careless  boy. 

5.  The  mng  of  the  little  bird  has  been  broken. 

Write  a  list  of  the  verbs  in  these  sentences,  with  the  subject 
of  each  before  it. 

III. 

1.  The  sunshine  lies  on  the  brown  barn  floor. 

2.  The  baby  is  sleeping  in  the  hammock. 

3.  The  door  of  the  little  cottage  stands  open. 

4.  A  picture  of  Lincoln  hangs  on  the  wall. 

5.  An  old  gray  cat  sits  on  the  doorstep. 

What  is  the  subject  of  each  sentence  ?  the  predicate  ? 

What  words  express  the  state  of  the  subject  in  the  first  sen- 
tence ?  in  the  second  sentence  ?  in  the  third  ?  the  fourth  ? 
the  fifth  ? 

A  word  or  group  of  words  that  expresses  the  state  or  con- 
dition of  the  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  verb. 

Write  a  list  of  the  verbs  in  the  above  sentences.  Write 
before  each  verb  its  subject. 


THE    VERB.  101 


Find  the  verbs  in  these  sentences  : 

6.  All  kinds  of  trees  have  flowers. 

Y.  A  little  plant  sleeps  within  each  seed. 

8.  The  leaves  lie  thick  beneath  the  naked  trees. 

9.  The  brown  stalks  of  weeds  stand  along  the  country 
roads. 

10.  The  autumn  mist  rests  upon  the  meadows. 

Write  a  list  of  the  verbs  in  these  sentences,  with  the  sub- 
ject of  each  before  it. 

lY. 

1.  The  eagle  is  our  national  bird. 

2.  The  groves  were  full  of  singing  birds. 

3.  The  name  of  the  king  of  the  lions  was  Tawny 
Mane. 

4.  The  monkeys  seem  very  playful. 

5.  The  flowers  are  very  lovely, — proses  and  lilies  and 
orange  blossoms. 

What  words  in  the  first  sentence  describe  the  eagle  ?  in  the 
second  sentence  describe  the  groves  ?  in  the  third  sentence  tell 
the  name  of  the  king  of  the  lions  ?  in  the  fourth  sentence  de- 
scribe the  monkeys  ?  in  the  fifth  sentence  describe  the  flowers  ? 

What  word  in  the  first  sentence  connects  the  subject  with 
the  words  describing  it  ?  in  the  second  sentence  connects  the 
subject  with  the  words  completing  the  statement  about  it  ?  in 
the  third  sentence  ?  the  fourth  sentence  ?  the  fifth  ? 

A  word  connecting  the  subject  of  a  sentence  with  a  word 
or  group  of  words  completing  the  statement  about  it  is  a 
verb. 

Such  a  verb  is  called  a  copula  or  bond. 


103     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

'^^o^h'^r^' — '!  I . . ' ^ ^- — '■ 

A  verb  is  a  word  expressing  action  given  or  received  hy 

its  subject,  expressing  the  state  or  condition  of  its  subject,  or 
connecting  its  subject  with  a  word  or  group  of  words  com- 
pleting the  statement  about  it. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 
THE   CORRECT  USAGE    OF   CERTAIN    VERBS. 

Only  such  definitions  have  been  given  to  the  following  verbs 
as  shall  show  the  distinctions  in  their  use  which  the  best  usage 
observes.  Drill  in  this  correct  usage  should  be  begun  early, 
and  continued  until  the  habit  of  using  them  correctly  is  fixed. 
Hence  this  lesson  should  be  one  for  repetition,  review,  and  the 
arrangement  of  new  illustrative  exercises  by  the  teacher. 

I. 

Teach,  taught,  teaching.     To  give  instruction. 
Learn,  learned,  learning.     To  obtain  knowledge. 

1.  The  best  of  instructors  may  teach  us,  but  we  ourselves 
must  learn  our  lessons. 

2.  Experience  has  taught  me;  I  have  learned  to  be 
patient. 

Sit,  sat,  sitting.     To  take  a  certain  position. 

Set,  setting.     To  place  or  put ;  to  sink  or  settle  down. 

3.  We  sat  on  the  outside  of  the  coach ;  it  was  pleas- 
anter  than  sitting  inside. 

4.  The  hen  sits  on  a  dozen  eggs.  She  is  the  only  sit- 
ting hen  in  the  flock. 


THE  CORRECT  USAGE  OF  CERTAIN  VERBS.  103 

5.  We  set  the  hen  on  a  dozen  of  eggs,  but  she  refused 
to  sit. 

6.  Some  one  has  set  a  hot  dish  on  this  table. 

Y.     The  boat  sets  low  in  the  water.     The  sun  was  set- 
ting. ^ 

Lie^  lay,  lain,  lying.     To  rest  in  a  certain  position. 
Lay,  laid,  laying.     To  put  or  place. 

8.  The  ship  lies  at  anchor  where  it  lay  yesterday,  and 
where  it  has  lain  for  a  week. 

9.  The  children  laid  the  wreath  on  their  father's  grave. 

Wish,  wished,  wishing.     To  desire. 

Want,  wanted,  wa/ntiruj.     To  feel  the  need  of,  and  there- 
fore to  desire. 

10.  The  children  wished  to  see  the  beautiful  pictures. 

11.  The  path  was  rough,  and  the  children  wanted  their 
stout  shoes. 

Get,  got,  getting.     To  obtain. 
Have,  had,  having.     To  possess. 

12.  lie  has  got  riches  by  being  prudent  and  careful. 

13.  He  has  beautiful  silks  in  his  store. 

Guess,  guessed,  guessing.     To  form  a  judgment  without 
certain  knowledge. 

Think,  thought,  thinking.     To  judge. 

Reckon,  reckoned,  reckoning.     To  count  or  compute. 

14.  The  boy  has  guessed  the  riddle. 

16.     The  boy  thinks  that  this  is  the  answer. 
If).     The  boy  has  reckoned  the  cost  of  the  flour. 


104     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Stoj)^   stoj>j)ed,  stopping.     To  bring  to  a  halt. 
Stay,  stayed,  staying.     To  remain. 

17.  A  coach  stopped  before  the  door  of  the  house  where 
we  were  staying. 

18.  The  peddler  stops  at  many  doors,  but  he  does  not 
stay  long  at  any  of  them. 

May,  might.    Expresses  possibility  or  permission. 
Can,  could.     Expresses  power  or  ability. 

19.  The  travelers  may  see  the  Passion  Play. 

20.  May  we  not  drive  in  the  park  ? 

21.  Can  you  see  the  Isles  of  Shoals  from  Portsmouth  ? 

22.  Might  he  not  have  misunderstood  you  ?    Could  he 
not  have  misunderstood  you  ? 

Give  the  reason  for  the  choice  of  verbs  in  each  of  the  above 
sentences.     Put  each  verb  in  an  original  sentence. 

II. 

Supply  with  the  proper  verbs  the  blanks  in  the  following 
sentences  : 

1.     us  how  to  use  these  words  correctly,  for  we 


2.  The  men on  the  deck  of  a  boat  which low 

in  the  water, 

3.  The  little  child  had quiet  all  day. 

4.  They the  child  on  a  bed  of  soft  moss. 

5.  I  do  not  need  these  clothes,  but  I   them. 

6.  I  need  these  garments,  and  therefore  I them. 

T.  Did  you any  fish  ?    you  any  bait  ? 

8.  Can  you what  is  in  this  box  ? 


THE  ADVERB.  105 


9.     Do  you that  it  is  raining  ? 

10.  I that  you  are  from  the  West. 

11.  Did  you at  the  hotel  or  merely there  ? 

12.  I  think  that  I do  the  work  of  the  higher  class. 

-I  try?  f 


CHAPTER   XXV. 

THE  ADVERB. 

I. 

1.  "  By  yonder  sandy  cove,  where,  every  day, 
The  tide  flows  in  and  out, 
A  lonely  bird  in  sober  brown  and  gray 
Limps  patiently  about." 

How  does  the  tide  flow  ?    How  does  the  bird  limp  ? 

2.  A  very  little  act  of  kindness  may  produce  a  great 
deal  of  happiness. 

How  little  an  act  of  kindness  ? 

3.  The  Concord  river  flows  very  slowly. 
How  does  the  Concord  river  flow  ?    How  slowly  ? 

Words  that  omswer  the  question  how  are  adverbs.     They 
inodify  only  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 
Such  adverbs  are  adverbs  of  manner. 

Find  the  adverbs  (words  that  answer  the  question  how)  in 
the  following  sentences  : 

4.  Kobert  of  Lincoln  is  gayly  dressed. 

5.  He  is  merrily  swinging  on  briar  and  weed. 


106     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

6.  "  Silently,  slowly,  stately  and  free. 

Cities  of  coral  under  the  sea 
Little  by  little  are  builded." 

7.  The  exceedingly  low  rate  of  wages  causes  much  suf- 
fering. 

8.  The  wretchedness  in  the  poorer  parts  of  London  is 
very  largely  caused  by  intemperance. 

What  does  each  of  these  adverbs  modify?  Write  a  list  of 
the  adverbs  in  these  sentences  and  place  after  each  the  word 
which  it  modifies. 

II. 

1.  Let  us  do  what  we  can  to-day. 

2.  The  Indians  formerly  lived  in  New  England. 

3.  "  I  once  had  a  sweet  little  doll,  dears." 

When  shall  we  do  what  we  can  ?  When  did  the  Indians  live 
in  New  England  ?     When  did  I  have  a  sweet  little  doll  ? 

Woi'ds  that  answer  the  question  when  are  acherhs.  Siwh 
adverhs  modify  only  verhs. 

Such  adverbs  are  adverhs  of  time. 

Find  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences  : 

4.  I  will  tell  you  to-morrow  about  the  jewel  weed. 

6.  Sometimes  the  brooksides  are  yellow  with  its  quaint 
blossoms. 

6.  Once  I  thought  it  only  a  common  weed,  but  lately  I 
have  learned  to  admire  it. 

III. 

1.  Here  is  the  Old  Manse. 

2.  There  is  Concord  Bridge. 


THE  ADVERB.  107 


3.     Yonder  is  the  statue  of  the  Minute  Man. 

Where  is  the  Old  Manse  ?  Where  is  Concord  Bridge  ? 
Where  is  the  statue  of  the  Minute  Man  ? 

Words  that  answer  the  question  where  are  adverbs.  Such 
admerhs  modify  only  verbs. 

Such  adverbs  are  ad/verbs  of  place. 

Find  the  adverbs  in  these  sentences  : 

1.  Here  is  the  home  of  Washington. 

2.  Here  is  the  home  of  Washington;  yonder  is  his 
tomb,  and  below  the  Potomac  river  flows. 

3.  Afar  off  lies  the  wreck  of  the  Hesperus. 

lY. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  tliat  modifies  the  meam/lng  of  a 
verb^  adjective,  or  other  adverb. 

Words  that  answer  the  question  how,  when,  or  where,  are 
adverbs.  , 

Find  the  adverbs  in  these  sentences  : 

1.  Suddenly  a  peal  of  thunder  fell  upon  his  ears. 

2.  The  rain  fell  more  and  more  rapidly. 

3.  The  tiny  brook,  which  ran  laughing  near  our  home, 
was  quickly  swollen  to  a  raging  torrent. 

4.  Here  and  there  and  everywhere,  little  streams  of 
water  sprang  into  being,  running  this  way  and  that,  as  if 
seeking  but  not  knowing  the  way  to  the  larger  stream. 

5.  The  tall  and  very  slender  birches  bent  nearly  to  the 
ground  before  the  strong  wind. 


108     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


Y. 

Supply  suitable  adverbs   for  the  blanks  in    the  following 
sentences  : 

A  Quiet  Scene.     The  clouds  moved ,  the  wind  blew 

,  the  river  flowed ,  a  boat  at  anchor  rocked . 


By  supplying  different  adverbs  make  the  above  a  wild  scene. 
Supply  adverbs  of  time  in  the  following  : 

The  crocus  blooms than  the  violet. 

The  blue-bird  comes than  the  robin. 

there  have  not  been  so  many  robins  in  my  orchard 

as . 

we  were  in  ^N'ew  York, we  are  in  Philadel- 
phia,   we  shall  be  in  Washington. 

Supply  adverbs  of  place  in  the  following  sentences  : 

is  the  first  blood  of  the  Revolutionary  War 

was  spilled. 

is  the  tomb  of  Washington. 

Supply  as  many  suitable  adverbs  as  possible  for  each  of  the 
following  blanks  : 

The  brook  flows  ;   the  bird  flies  ;  the  lamp 

burns  ;  the  drum  beats  ;  the  time  passes ; 

the  price  is cheap ;  the  child  is clothed. 

Write  a  paragraph,  uniting  in  it  the  sentences  under  lY. 


THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUN.  109 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 
THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUN. 

Frank  brought  some  beautiful  wild  roses  to  his  mother. 
"  They  grew,"  he  said,  "  near  the  sea,  and  I  picked  them 
for  you  while  the  dew  was  on  them." 

Whom  does  his  represent  ?  What  noun  could  you  use  in 
place  of  his?  What  noun  could  you  use  in  place  of  they? 
What  noun  does  they  represent  ?  What  noun  could  you  use 
in  place  of  he  f  What  noun  does  he  represent  ?  Who  picked 
the  roses  ?  What  noun  could  be  used  in  place  of  If  For 
whom  did  Frank  pick  them  ?  To  whom  is  he  speaking  ?  What 
noun  could  be  used  in  place  of  you  9  What  noun  does  them 
represent  ? 

Make  a  list  of  the  words  in  the  above  selection  that  stand 
for,  or  represent,  nouns.  These  words  are  pronouns.  (The 
word  pronoun  means  in  place  of  a  noun.) 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  that  represents  a  noun. 

In  what  Frank  said  he  uses  /in  place  of  his  own  name,  you 
in  place  of  the  person  to  whom  he  is  speaking,  and  they  and 
them  in  place  of  the  objects  of  which  he  is  speaking. 

/,  my,  mine,  me,  represent  the  person  speaking.  If  Mary 
is  speaking,  they  mean  Mary  ;  if  Harry  is  speaking,  they  mean 
Harry  ;  if  the  teacher  is  speaking,  they  mean  the  teacher. 
We,  our,  ours,  us,  mean  a  number  (two  or  more)  of  persons 
of  whom  the  speaker  is  one.  You,  your,  yours,  thou,  thy, 
thine,  thee,  represent  the  person  spoken  to.  He,  his,  him,  her, 
hers,  it,  its,  they,  their,  theirs,  them,  represent  the  person  or 


no     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

thing  spoken  of.     All  of  the  pronouns  in  italics  in  this  para- 
graph are  called  personal  pronouns. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  one  that  rej^resents  the.  person 
speaMng,  the  person  addressed^  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

A  personal  pronoun  representing  the  speaker  is  of  the  first 
person;  one  representing  the  person  addressed  is  of  the  second 
person;  one  representing  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of  is  of 
the  third  person. 

From  the  following  conversation  make  a  list  of  the  pronouns 
of  the  first  person  ;  then  a  list  of  those  of  the  second  person ; 
then  a  list  of  those  of  the  third  person. 

"  Pray,  who  are  you,  beautiful  creature  ? "  inquired 
Pandora. 

"  I  am  to  be  called  Hope ! "  answered  the  sunshiny 
figure. 

"  Your  wings  are  colored  like  the  rainbow ! "  exclaimed 
Pandora. 

"  Yes,  they  are  like  the  rainbow,"  said  Hope,  "  because  I 
am  partly  made  of  tears  as  well  as  of  smiles." 

"  And  will  you  stay  with  us,"  asked  Epimetheus,  "  for- 
ever and  ever  ?  " 

"  As  long  as  you  need  me,"  said  Hope,  "  I  promise  never 
to  desert  you.  Again  and  again  you  shall  see  the  glimmer 
of  my  wings  on  the  ceiling  of  your  cottage." 

—From  "  The  Paradise  of  Children,"  by  Hawthorne. 

What  personal  pronoun  occurs  in  Pandora^s  first  speech  ? 
Does  it  represent  the  speaker  or  the  person  spoken  to  ?  Whom 
does  it  represent  ?  What  pronoun  occurs  in  the  answer  of  the 
sunshiny  figure  ?     Of  what  person  is  it  ?     Whose  wings  does 


THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUN.  Ill 

Paudora  say  are  colored  like  the  rainbow  ?  Whom  does  your 
represent  ?  What  form  of  Hope  does  it  represent  ?  What 
form  of  the  pronoun,  then,  is  your  9 

[The  teacher,  by  similar  questions,  should  make  plain  the 
use  of  the  other  personal  pronouns  in  the  selection.] 


CHAPTER     XXVII. 
THE   PERSONAL  PRONOUN,    Continued. 

I. 

1.  My  father  and  I  are  studying  history  together. 

2.  You  and  I  will  go  into  the  woods  to  cut  a  Christmas 
tree. 

3.  You  and  Edward  and  I  are  invited  to  visit  Mount 
Yernon. 

Notice  the  order  of  the  subjects  in  the  above  sentences.  The 
speaker  mentions  himself  last,  the  person  addressed  first,  when 
other  persons  are  associated. 

Arrange  the  pronouns  in  the  parentheses  in  proper  order 
in  the  following  sentences  : 

4.  (I  and  you)  will  prepare  the  breakfast,  and  then  (you 
and  Mary)  may  wash  the  dishes  while  (I  and  Charles)  catch 
some  trout  for  dinner. 

5.  (I  and  the  guide)  selected  this  place  for  our  camp,  but 
(Mr.  Murray  and  you)  prefer  a  place  nearer  the  lake. 

6.  (Mr.  Murray,  I,  you,  and  the  guide)  are  to  go  in  two 
canoes,  (Mr.  Murray  and  you)  in  the  first  one,  (I  and  the 
guide)  in  the  second  one. 


112     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


II. 

1.  I  offer  myself  as  a  soldier  in  this  cause. 

2.  I  myself  will  plead  with  him  not  to  be  unjust. 

3.  You  wrong  yourself  by  keeping  company  with  the 
vicious. 

4.  You  yourself  have  done  him  many  kindnesses. 

5.  He  that  wrongs  his  friend  wrongs  himself  more. 

6.  He  himself  saw  tears  in  the  queen's  eyes. 

Myself,  yourself,  thyself,  himself ^  herself,  itself,  ourselves, 
yourselves,  themselves,  are  compound  personal  pronouns,  used 
as  reflexive  when  the  subject  receives  his  own  action,  as  in 
sentences  1,  3,  and  5  ;  and  as  emphatic  when  used  to  make  the 
pronoun  more  prominent,  as  in  sentences  2,  4,  and  6. 

III. 

The  pronouns  thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  and  ye,  are  used  only  in 
sacred  writings,  in  addressing  the  Deity,  in  poetry,  and  among 
the  Society  of  Friends. 

1.  O  Lord,  open  thou  my  lips,  and  my  mouth  shall  shew 
forth  thy  praise. — Ps.  LI.  v.  15. 

2.  But  seek  ye  first  the  kingdom  of  God. — St.  Matthew, 
YL  V.  15. 

3.  "  Good-bye,  sweet  day,  good-bye ! 

I  have  so  loved  thee,  but  I  cannot  hold  thee. 
Departing  like  a  dream,  the  shadows  fold  thee. 
Slowly  thy  perfect  beauty  fades  away : 
Good-bye,  sweet  day !  " 


THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUN.  113 

IV. 

1.  He  was  a  boy  who  loved  manly  games,  but  he  did 
not  neglect  his  studies. 

2.  She  studied  her  lessons  with  her  brother. 

3.  Some  thoughtless  boy  has  hit  the  bird  with  a  stone. 
Its  leg  has  been  broken. 

4.  The  kite  would  have  flown  high,  but  its  tail  became 
entangled  in  the  branches  of  a  tree. 

The  pronoun  he  in  its  three  forms  (he,  his,  him)  always 
represents  a  male  being,  and  is  therefore  of  masculine  gender  ; 
the  pronoun  she  in  its  three  forms  (she,  her,  hers)  always  repre- 
sents a  female  being,  and  is  therefore  of  feminine  gender  ;  the 
pronoun  it  in  its  two  forms  (it,  its)  represents  the  lower  forms 
of  life  (animals,  birds,  fishes,  insects)  when  the  idea  of  sex  is 
not  important,  and  all  nouns  that  have  no  sex  ;  it  is  of  neuter 
gender.  All  other  pronouns  have  the  gender  of  the  noun 
which  they  represent. 

Y. 

1.  The  ship,  how  beautiful  she  is ! 

2.  The  ocean,  how 

"  His  beard  of  snow 
Heaves  with  the  heaving  of  his  breast." 

3.  The  North  Wind  breathes  his  chilling  breath  on  all 
the  tender  flowers. 

4.  The  city  has  called  her  children  home  to  celebrate 
her  birthday. 

Is  a  ship  masculine  or  feminine  ?  the   ocean  ?  the  North 

Wind  ?  a  city  ? 
8 


114     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

Sometimes  we  speak  of  things  that  have  not  life  as  if  they 
were  persons,  ^^q  QdM  i\\\^  personifying  iham.  If  we  think  of 
the  thing  personified  as  having  the  qualities  of  a  woman — gen- 
tleness, beauty,  grace — we  make  it  feminine.  If  we  think  of  it 
as  having  the  qualities  of  a  man — strength,  power,  sternness — 
we  make  it  masculine. 

Why  do  we  make  ship  feminine  ?  ocean  masculine  ?  the 
North  Wind  masculine  ?  the  city  feminine  ? 

If  you  were  to  personify  each  of  the  following  nouns, 
would  you  make  it  masculine  or  feminine,  and  why  ? 

a  mountain       the  South  Wind        music  the  violet 

the  oak  tree       the  birch  tree  a  river  a  steamer 

the  sun  the  moon  a  star  the  earth 

a  house  when  the  family  return  for  Thanksgiving, 
a  strong  wind  that  breaks  down  the  trees, 
a  gentle  wind  that  cools  and  refreshes  us. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

SENTENCES  FOR    THE  STUDY  OF  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

In  addition  to  the  study  of  the  pronouns  in  these  sentences, 
as  of  first,  second,  or  third  person  ;  singular  or  plural  number  ; 
masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter  gender ;  reflexive  or  emphatic, 
etc.,  the  sentences  marked  with  a  star  should  be  used  for  dicta- 
tion and  for  oral  repetition,  to  emphasize  the  habit  of  using 
correct  forms. 

1.     I  am  in  the  wrong. 
*2.     It  is  I  who  am  in  the  ^vrong.    It  was  I  who  broke 
the  bottle. 


THE  PREPOSITION.  115 


*3.     It  was  he  who  sang  so  sweetly. 

*4.     Either  you  or  he  will  be  appointed  to  West  Point. 

*5.     The  choice  lies  between  you  and  him. 

6.  You  wrong  yourselves  when  you  seek  to  wrong 
another. 

7.  They  who  tell  lies  spread  nets  for  their  own  feet. 

8.  "  Come  to  me,  O  ye  children, 

For  I  hear  you  at  your  play." 

9.  "  In  your  hearts  are  the  birds  and  the.  sunshine, 

In  your  thoughts  the  brooklets  flow ; 
But  in  mine  is  the  wind  of  Autumn 
And  the  first  fall  of  snow." 

10.  "  Let  all  the  ends  thou  aimest  at  be  thy  country's, 
thy  God's,  and  Truth's. 

11.  The  sun  came  forth  from  his  curtain  of  clouds. 

12.  The  moon  has  thrown  her  silver  beams  upon  the 
sparkling  river. 

*13.     If  you  and  we  win  this  victory,  then  the  reward 
will  be  yours  and  ours,  and  the  praise  will  be  for  you  and  us. 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 

THE  PREPOSITION. 

I. 

1.    "  The  pine  trees  on  the  hilltops  are  clothed  with 
fadeless  green ; 
The  brooklet  in  the  valley  sings  on,  although  un- 
seen; 


116     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAM3IAR. 

The  deep  blue  sky  above  us  smiles  to  the  earth  be- 
low— 

The  earth  all  white  and  sparkling  with  the  glory  of 
the  snow ! " 

What  part  of  speech  is  trees  f  are  clothed  ?  fadeless  9  hrooJc- 
let  f  sings  9  blue  ?  smiles  ?  earth  f  white  ?  sparhling  ? 

There  is  in  the  above  stanza  another  class  of  words,  the  rela- 
tion class,  called  prepositions.  On  shows  the  relation  in  posi- 
tion of  the  trees  to  the  hilltops;  in  shows  the  relation  in 
position  of  the  brooklet  to  the  valley  ;  ahove  shows  the  relation 
in  position  of  the  sky  to  us  ;  loith  shows  the  relation  in  material 
of  are  clothed  to  green ;  to  shows  the  relation  in  direction  of 
smiles  and  earth ;  toith  shows  the  relation  in  material  of  white 
and  sparkling  and  glory  ;  of  shows  possessive  relation  of  snow 
to  glory.  These  relation  words,  on,  with,  in,  ahove,  to,  with, 
and  of,  are  prepositions.  It  will  be  noticed  in  the  above  ex- 
amples that  each  preposition  is  followed  by  a  noun.  A  pre- 
position may,  however,  be  followed  by  a  pronoun,  as  in  the 
following  sentences  : 

2.  I  saw  the  hilltops  and  the  pine  trees  on  them. 

3.  There  is  a  green  that  lives  through  the  cold  of  win- 
ter.    The  pines  are  clothed  with  it. 

4.  I  love  the  valley  and  the  brook  that  sings  in  it. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  that  shows  the  relation  hetween 
a  noun  or  pronoun  following  it  and  some  other  word  in  the 
sentence. 

A  preposition  is  said  to  govern  the  noun  or  pronoun  that 
follows  it. 


THE  PREPOSITION.  117 


II. 

5.  Dear  little  face,  that  lies  in  cobLirh  content 

Within  the  gracious  hollo^w  that  God  made 
In  every  human  shoulder^  where  lie  meant 
Some  tired  head /<:>/•  comfort  should  be  laid  I 

6.  Dream  thy  sweet  dreams  ujpon  nvy  quiet  heart. 

I  watch  thy  slumber ;  naught  shall  do  thee  ill. 
—From  "Slumber  Song,"  by  Mrs.  Thaxter. 

What  hollow  is  meant  ?  Lay  your  hand  upon  it.  What 
little  head  is  laid  there  ?    Why  is  this  called  a  slumber  song  9 

What  word  does  the  group  of  words  in  calm  content  modify. 
Place  this  group  of  words  after  the  word  that  you  think  it 
modifies.  What  word  does  the  group  of  words  within  the  gra- 
cious hollow  modify  ?  Place  it  after  that  word.  Does  for  com- 
fort modify  head  or  laid  9  Place  it  after  each  to  see  which 
gives  the  better  meaning.  Does  upon  my  quiet  'heart  modify 
dream  or  dreams  9  Place  it  after  each  to  see  which  gives  the 
better  thought. 

What  is  the  noun  in  the  first  group  of  italicized  words  in 
the  above  paragraph  ?  What  is  the  preposition  ?  What  is 
the  word  that  the  group  modifies  ?  The  preposition,  then, 
shows  the  relation  between  what  two  words  ?  Answer  the 
same  questions  about  the  other  groups  of  words. 

In  the  following  selection  find  the  prepositions  and  tell  be- 
tween what  words  each  shows  relation.  (Determine  first  the 
prepositional  group  of  words,  then  the  word  that  this  preposi- 
tional group  modifies  ;  the  relation  is  between  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun in  the  prepositional  group  and  the  word  which  this  group 
modifies.) 


118     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

A  poor  boy  who  lived  in  the  city  of  Lyons,  in  France, 
obtained  the  opportunity  of  attending  without  expense  a 
school  made  up  mainly  of  boys  from  rich  families.  He  went 
wearing  a  blouse  such  as  is  often  worn  by  the  poorer  classes 
in  France.  When  he  entered  the  schoolroom  his  first  glance 
showed  him  that  his  was  the  only  blouse  there.  He  saw 
the  boys  tittering,  and  from  every  side  he  heard  their 
whispers,  "  He  has  come  in  a  blouse ! "  As  days  went  by 
the  master  never  called  him  by  his  name.  When  he  spoke 
to  him,  it  was,  "Come  here,  What's-your-name  !  "  or,  "  What 
are  you  about,  What's-your-name  ?  "  Another  would  have 
been  discouraged  and  failed  in  his  work,  but  this  boy  said, 
"  If  I  am  to  take  any  position  in  this  school,  I  must  work 
twice  as  hard  as  the  others."  In  this  way  he  won  success, 
and  when  he  became  a  great  author  he  wrote  a  pretty  little 
story  for  children,  and  called  it,  "  Little  What's-his-name." 
—The  Story  of  Daudet's  Youth. 

"  There  was  a  ship  a-sailing,  a-sailing  on  the  sea. 
And,  oh,  it  was  all  laden  with  pretty  things  for  thee ! 
There  were  comfits  in  the  cabin  and  apples  in  the  hold ; 
The  sails  were  made  of  silk  and  the  masts  were  made  of 

gold; 
The  four-and-twenty  sailors  that  walked  about  the  decks 
Were  four-and-twenty  white  mice  with  chains  about  their 

necks ; 
The  captain  was  a  duck  with  a  compass  on  his  back. 
And  when  the  ship  began  to   sail,   the  captain  cried, 

'  Quack,  quack ! ' " 


THE  PREPOSITION.  119 


III. 

Supply  prepositions  in  the  blanks  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  then  write  the  sentences  connecting  them  into  a  paragraph  : 

1.  There  was  once  an  oak  tree a  hill. 

2.  A  squirrel  had  built  his  nest its  trunk. 

3.  lie  used  to  play the  branches,  and  chatter 

the  leaves,  and  the  leaves  would  softly  whisper  back 

him. 

lY. 

I.  The  boy  went  home  this  morning,  and  he  is  still  at 
home. 

After  verbs  of  motion,  go,  come,  arrive,  etc.,  home  is  an 
adverb  ;  therefore,  it  is  incorrect  to  place  a  preposition  before 
it.  After  words  denoting  stay  or  rest  the  preposition  at  should 
be  placed  before  home. 

Use  home  or  at  home  correctly  in  the  following  blanks :  to 

go ;   to  come  ';   to  arrive ;   to  remain ;   to 

be ;  to-stay ;  to  bring .     What  is  the  difference 

in  meaning  between  ''^The  gentleman  saw  Mr.  Allison  home," 
and  '^  The  gentleman  saw  Mr.  Allison  at  home  "  ? 

II.  Among  the  pupils  of  the  school  there  is  much  good- 
natured  rivalry.  Between  the  leader  of  the  first  class  and 
the  leader  of  the  second  class  there  is  a  strong  friendship. 

Among  has  reference  to  more  than  two  ;  between  to  two. 

Use  among  or  between  correctly  in  the  following  blanks  : 

the  nations  of  Europe  ;  England  and  the  United 

States ;  North  and  South  ;  these  many  good  books  ; 

Whittier's  and  Longfellow's  poems. 


120     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  GRAMMAR  AND  LANGUAGE. 

III.     One  should  be  very  careful  in  stepping  off  the  cars. 

Off  is  a  preposition  in  such  a  sentence  as  this,  and  should 
not  be  followed  by  of. 

Give  sentences  containing  this  use  of  off. 

lY.  The  girl  is  like  her  mother  in  grace  and  gentleness, 
but  more  like  her  father  in  her  love  for  music  and  literature. 

Following  the  adjective  Wke  the  preposition  to  is  commonly 
not  expressed  but  understood.  The  noun  that  follows  is  the 
object  of  this  preposition  to. 


CHAPTER  XXX. 
THE    CONJUNCTION. 

I. 

1.  The  meadows  and  the  river  lie  between  the  towns. 

2.  The  blackbirds  fly  over  the  meadows  and  then 
slowly  soar  down  to  the  ground. 

3.  When  the  meadow  is  full  of  yellow  cowslips  it  looks 
as  if  father  Sun  had  crumpled  up  sunbeams  and  scattered 
the  bits  over  the  meadow. 

I  wish  to  make  the  same  statement  about  the  meadows 
and  the  river.  I  have  therefore  joined  them  by  and.  I  wish 
to  make  two  statements  about  the  blackbirds.  I  join  these  by 
and.     Why  do  I  use  and  in  the  third  sentence  ? 

4.  The  river  runs  rapidly  but  quietly. 

5.  The  brook  ripples  slowly  and  musically  over  the 
pebbles. 


THE  CONJUNCTION,  121 

What  is  the  joining  word  in  sentence  No.  4  ?  Why  is  it 
used  ?  What  is  the  joining  word  in  sentence  Xo.  5  ?  Why  is 
it  used  ? 

That  part  of  speech  that  joins  or  connects  words  or  grmips 
of  words  is  a  conjunction. 

II. 

What  does  each  of  the  conjunctions  in  the  following  selec- 
tion connect  ? 

The  summer  came,  and  all  the  birds  were  dead ; 
The  days  were  like  hot  coals ;  the  very  ground 
Was  burned  to  ashes ;  in  the  orchards  fed 
Myriads  of  caterpillars,  and  around 
The  cultivated  fields  and  garden  beds 
Hosts  of  devouring  insects  crawled,  amd  found 
l^o  foe  to  check  their  march  till  they  had  made 
The  land  a  desert  without  leaf  or  shade. 

—From  "The  Birds  of  Killingworth,"  by  Longfellow. 

III. 

Join  by  conjunctions  the  sentences  of  each  group  so  that 
they  will  make  one  sentence.  Use  the  conjunction  given  before 
each  group,  thus  : 

And.  April  has  brought  the  willows.  April  has  brought 
the  lilacs.     April  has  hrought  the  willows  and  the  lilacs. 

1.  And.  We  heard  the  roar  of  the  ocean.  We  felt 
the  salt  air  in  our  faces. 

The  morning  is  the  best  time  for  labor.  The  evening  is 
the  best  time  for  rest. 


123     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

2.  Bitt.  The  humming-bird  is  very  small.  The  hum- 
ming-bird is  intelligent. 

The  peony  is  tall  and  brilliant.  The  violet  is  modest 
and  fragrant. 

3.  If.  We  should  never  know  how  sweet  sleep  is.  We 
were  never  tired. 

The  robin  takes  our  cherries.  He  repays  us  by  destroy- 
ing the  worms. 

4.  Because.  Ireland  is  the  Emerald  Isle.  There  are  fre- 
quent showers  there. 

Gold  is  more  valuable  than  iron.     It  is  less  abundant. 

5.  Neither  —  nor.  We  should  not  speak  evil.  We 
should  not  listen  to  it. 

6.  Either  —  or.  Mrs.  Fessenden  will  preside.  Miss 
Palmer  will  preside. 

He  is  ill.     He  has  met  with  an  accident. 

7.  As.     The  day  is  for  action.     The  night  is  for  rest. 
The  lion  is  bold.     The  fox  is  sly. 

Notice  the  difference  of  use  between  as as,  and  so 

as,  in  the  following  sentences  : 

Thou  art  as  good  as  thou  art  beautiful. 
You  are  not  so  wise  as  you  are  witty. 

When  the  assertion  is  negative,  so  is  used  instead  of  the 
first  as. 

The  use  of  like  as  a  conjunction  in  such  sentences  as  "  He 
uses  English  like  an  ignorant  man  does/"  "  Please  speak  like  I 
do/"  etc.,  is  not  correct.  As  should  be  used,  the  sentences 
being,  ^'He  speaks  English  as  an  ignorant  man  does,"  ''Do  as 
I  do,""  etc. 


THE  INTERJECTION.  123 


CHAPTER   XXXI. 
THE    INTERJECTION. 

I. 

1.  Oh,  look  where  the  lilac  bush,  stout  and  tall, 

Is  hiding  a  robin's  nest ! 

2.  Alas,  the  wind  has  torn  the  flag  to  tatters ! 

3.  Ah,  how  wonderful  the  snow-crystals  are ! 

4.  Hurrah,  hurrah,  for  the  flag  we  love ! 

5.  Halloo !  halloo !  the  lost  child  is  found. 

In  expressing  surprise,  pain,,  pleasure,  or  any  strong  emo- 
tion, or  in  seeking  to  attract  the  attention  of  someone,  we 
often  use  such  words  as  ah,  ohy  0,  alas,  hurrah,  halloo.  These 
sounds  or  words  are  called  interjections.  While  classed  with 
the  parts  of  speech,  they  are  not  properly  so  included,  since 
they  are  used  not  to  aid  in  the  expression  of  a  thought,  but  to 
express  a  feeling. 

In  the  sentences  above.  Oh  expresses  surprise,  Alas  ex- 
presses grief.  Ah  expresses  admiration.  Hurrah  expresses  joy 
and  praise,  and  Halloo  is  used  to  attract  attention. 

A  word  or  expression  itsed  merely  to  express  strong  emo- 
tion^ or  to  attract  attention^  is  an  interjection. 

After  an  interjectimi  used  independently^  or  after  a 
sentence  introduced  hy  an  interjection,  an  exclamation  point 
is  used. 

The  interjections  oh  and  0  do  not  differ  in  what  they  ex- 
press, oh  being  used  in  ordinary  prose,  and  0  usually  in  poetry 


124     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

and  in  prose  that  is  solemn  or  dignified.  It  is  in  good  usage 
to  put  a  comma  after  oh,  but  not  after  0  when  followed  by 
another  word. 

II. 

What  are   the  interjections  in   the   following    sentences  ? 
What  feeling  do  you  think  each  expresses  ? 

6.     "  Oh,  then  he  was  magnificent,  all  azure,  gold,  and 
flame ! 
But,  woe  is  me !  an  autumn  breeze  from  out  the 
northwest  came. 

Y.     " '  Alas ! '  I  said,  '  no  power  on  earth  your  glory  can 
recall ! 
Did  you   not   know,   dear   sunflower,   that  pride 
must  have  a  fall  ? ' " 

8.  "  Little  Scotch  terrier,  little  dog  Kags, 

Looks  in  her  face,  and  his  funny  tail  wags : 
'  Ha,  ha ! '  laughs  little  Gustava." 

9.  Teach    me,    O    Lord,   the   way  of    thy  statutes. — 

Psalm  CXIX.  v.  33. 

Sentences  for  completion  and  dictation  : 

1.     how  strong  the is  ! 

2.     how  sorry  I  am  for  your  misfortune ! 

3.  Let  us  cheer  "  Old  Glory."    !  ! 

4.     ! !     Where  are  you  ? 

5.  " , ! "  came  a  jolly  laugh. 


REVIEW.  125 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

I. 

(Master  Skylark  is  awakened  by  a  little  bunch  of  flowers  that 
is  thrown  in  through  his  window.  He  springs  up,  looks  out, 
and  sees  Master  Will  Shakespeare,  laughing.) 

"Good-morrow,  sir,"  said  Nick,  and  bowed.  "It  is 
a  lovely  day." 

"  Most  beautiful,  indeed !     How  comes  the  sun  ?  " 

"  Just  up,  sir ;  the  river  is  afire  with  it  now.  Oh — oh ! " 
Nick  held  his  breath,  and  watched  the  light  creep  down 
the  wall,  darting  long  bars  of  rosy  gold  through  the  snowy 
bloom  of  the  apple-trees,  until  it  rested  upon  Master 
Shakespeare's  face,  and  made  a  fleeting  glory  there. 

Then  Master  Shakespeare  stretched  himself  a  little  in  the 

sun,  laughing  softly,  and  said,  "  It  is  the  sweetest  music  in 

the  world — morning,  spring,  and  God's  dear  sunshine;  it 

starteth  kindness  in  the  heart,  like  sap  in  a  withered  bud." 

—From  "Master  Skylark,"  by  John  Bennett. 

This  is  from  a  story  of  three  hundred  years  ago.  Why  is 
Nick  called  "  Master  Skylark  "?  In  what  month  of  the  year  do 
you  think  this  morning  was  ?  Do  you  find  any  expressions  that 
are  different  from  what  we  use  now  ?  Look  up  the  word  mor- 
row in  the  dictionary  and  see  if  the  use  of  it  here  is  correct. 
Why  does  he  describe  the  day  as  lovely  9  Examine  in  turn  each 
adjective,  and  tell  what  meaning  or  picture  it  presents  to  you. 

Why  may  we  call  the  sunshine  dear  9    Make  a  list  of  the 


126     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

adjectives  in  the  selection,  each  followed  by  the  noun  which  it 
modifies. 

Make  a  list  of  the  verbs,  and  state  of  each  whether  it  is  a 
verb  of  action,  exerted  or  received,  of  state  or  condition,  or  a 
copula.     What  is  the  subject  of  each  ? 

Tell  about  each  pronoun  which  you  find  in  this  selection, 
of  what  kind  it  is,  of  what  person,  what  number,  what  gender, 
and  whom  or  what  it  represents. 

Find  the  adverbs  in  the  selection,  tell  what  kind  of  an  ad- 
verb each  is,  and  what  it  modifies. 

Find  the  prepositions,  and  state  the  word  that  each  gov- 
erns, and  the  words  that  are  related  by  it. 

Find  the  conjunctions,  and  state  what  they  connect. 

What  is  the  one  interjection,  and  what  feeling  does  it 
represent  ? 

II. 

Which  is  the  longest  senteiice  in  this  selection  ?  Which  is 
the  shortest,  and  what  is  its  subject  ?  its  predicate  ?  What 
kinds  of  sentences  do  you  find  here  ?  What  one  kind  do  you 
not  find  ?  Explain  the  use  of  capital  letters.  What  proper 
names  do  you  find  ?  what  Christian  names  ?  what  surname  ? 
what  title  ? 

III. 

Out  of  the  adjectives  that  are  in  the  selection,  select  the  one 
that  would  best  describe  each  of  the  nouns  in  italics  in  the  sen- 
tences below. 

The  shadow  of  a  cloud  that  quickly  passes.  A  flower  that 
has  lain  in  the  sun.  A  song.  The  cheeks  of  a  child.  The 
hlossoms  of  a  cherry  tree.  The  blossoms  of  a  peach  tree.  The 
song  of  any  song-bird.     The  selection  itself. 


THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE.  127 

AVrite  each  of  the  list  of  adjectives  in  a  sentence.  The 
same  may  be  done  with  the  lists  of  the  other  parts  of  speech, 
if  time  allows. 


CHAPTER   XXXIII. 

THE  NOMINATIVE    CASE. 

I. 

1.  The  humming  bird  builds  his  nest  in  the  form  of  a 
small  cup. 

2.  He  places  it  on  a  horizontal  limb. 

3.  The  nest  is  covered  with  lichens. 

4.  It  looks  like  a  knob  on  the  branch. 

5.  The  child  has  sharp  eyes  who  can  discover  a  hum- 
ming-bird's nest. 

What   is  the  subject   of  the  verb  builds?  places?    is  cov- 
ered ?  looks  ?  has  ?  can  find  ? 

The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Name  the  subject  nominatives  in  the  above  sentences. 

II. 

1.  Have  you  ever  seen  a  humming-bird,  Harry  ? 

2.  I  once  had  a  tame  one,  Miss  Standish. 

3.  "  Take  heed,  O  youth,  both  brave  and  bright. 

Battles  there  are  for  you  to  fight ! 
Stand  up  erect,  and  face  them  all, 
Nor  turning  flee,  nor  wavering  fall." 


128     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


4.  "  O  my  children, 

Life  is  sunshine,  life  is  shadow ; 
Life  is  checkered  shade  and  sunshine ; 
Rule  by  love,  O  Hiawatha !  " 

Who  is  addressed  in  the  first  sentence  ?  in  the  second  ?  in 
the  third  ?     Who  are  addressed  in  the  last  selection  ? 

A  noun  or  pronoun  %ised  merely  to  name  a  person  or 
thing  addressed  is  in  the  nominative  case  hy  address. 

Name  the  nominatives  hy  address  in  the  above  sentences. 

III. 

1.  The  scarlet  barberries  have  been  called  September's 
blushes. 

2.  The  bird  is  an  exquisite  architect ;  the  beaver  is  a 
most  skillful  bridge-builder ;  the  silkworm  is  the  most  beau- 
tiful weaver ;  and  the  spider  is  the  best  net-maker. 

3.  The  y assail  mansion  was  the  headquarters  of  Wash- 
ington in  Cambridge  from  July,  1775,  to  March,  1776.  It 
became  the  home  of  the  poet  Longfellow  in  1837. 

4.  The  Yassall  mansion  is  called  the  "  Craigie  House." 

What  is  the  predicate  in  the  first  sentence  ?  Does  Septem- 
ber's  blushes  mean  the  same  thing  as  barberries  ?  What  is  the 
first  predicate  in  the  next  sentence  ?  What  noun  means  the 
same  thing  as  bird  9  In  the  next  predicate,  what  noun  means 
the  same  thing  as  the  subject  ?  Notice  in  each  of  the  other 
sentences  that  some  noun  that  means  the  same  thing  as  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  forms  a  part  of  the  predicate. 


THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE.  129 

A  noun  fomiin<i  a  part  of  the  predicate  and  meaning 
the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  is  a  predicate 
nomiuative. 

Name  the  predicate  nominatives  in  the  above  sentences. 

IV. 

1.  The  flowers  having  been  killed  by  the  frost,  the  gar- 
den looked  sad  and  desolate. 

2.  The  cage  Avas  vacant,  the  squirrel  having  gnawed 
his  way  out  of  it. 

3.  President  Garfield  having  died,  Vice-President  Ar- 
thur became  his  successor. 

In  the  above  sentences  the  flowers  having  been  hilled  by  the 
frost,  the  squirrel  having  gnawed  his  way  out,  President  Gar- 
field having  died,  do  not  express  complete  thoughts,  nor  do 
they  modify  the  statements  made  in  the  sentences.  They  are 
independent  elements,  and  the  nouns  President  Garfield,  squir- 
rel, flowers,  are  each  a  nominative  independe^it  or  absolute. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  that  stands  independently  of  govern- 
vng  words  in  a  sentence  is  an  absolute  nominative. 

V. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  that  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  that  is 
used  as  a  term  of  address,  that,  forming  apart  of  the  predi- 
cate, meoMS  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject,  or  that 
stands  independently  of  any  governing  word,  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

There  are  four  kinds  of  nominative  case :  the  subject  nomina- 
tive, the  nominative  by  address,  the  predicate  nominative,  and 
the  absolute  nominative. 
9 


130     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 


YI. 

Find  the  nominatives  in  the  following  selections,  and  state 
what  kind  of  a  nominative  each  is  : 

1.  The  rain  has  ceased,  and  in  my  room 

The  simshine  pours  an  airy  flood. 

2.  Civility  costs  nothing ;  but  it  buys  everything. 

3.  "  O  gentle  bees,  I  have  come  to  say 

That  grandfather  fell  asleep  to-day ; 

So,  bees,  sing  soft,  and,  bees,  sing  low, 

As  over  the  honey-fields  you  sweep 

To  the  trees  abloom  and  the  flowers  ablow ; 

Sing  of  grandfather  fast  asleep  ; 

And  ever  beneath  those  orchard  trees 

Find  cheer  and  shelter,  gentle  bees." 

— From  "Telling  the  Bees,"  by  Eugene  Field. 

4.  Oh,  the  love  of  a  lad  for  his  mother,  the  love  of  a 
mother  for  her  son — unchanged,  unchanging,  for  right,  for 
wrong,  through  grief  and  shame,  in  joy,  in  peace,  in  ab- 
sence, in  sickness,  and  in  the  shadow  of  death ! 

"  My  boy  ! "  was  all  she  said ;  and  then,  "  My  boy — ^my 
little  boy ! " 

And  after  a  while,  "  Mother,"  said  he,  and  took  her  face 
between  his  strong,  young  hands,  and  looked  into  her 
happy  eyes,  "  Mother,  dear,  I  ha'  been  to  London  town ;  I 
ha'  been  to  the  palace,  and  I  ha'  seen  the  Queen ;  but, 
mother,"  he  said  with  a  little  tremble  in  his  voice,  for  all  he 


THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE.  131 

smiled  so  bravely,  "I  ha'  never  seen  the  place  where  I 
Avould  rather  be  than  just  where  thou  art,  mother  dear ! " 

—From  "Master  Skylark." 

(What  is  the  subject  of  the  first  verb,  ims9  Is  hoy  the  sub- 
ject nominative,  or  the  nominative  by  address  ?) 

5.  Mr.  Gibson  says  that  field  mice  are  often  the  winter 
tenants  of  sparrows'  nests. 

6.  The  fringed  poly  gala  is  a  sly  flower ;  it  offers  one 
shoAvy  flower  to  him  who  sees  it,  while  it  hides  another  in 
the  earth. 

Y.  This  duller  blossom  being  hidden  in  the  earth,  the 
seeds  which  it  contains  are  planted  there. 

Note  :  The  terms  stiiject  and  predicate  are  applied  to  the 
two  divisions  of  a  sentence  ;  the  terms  subject  no7ninative,  or 
subject  of  the  verb,  and  predicate  verb,  or  verb,  are  applied  to 
the  essential  word  in  each. 

Use  the  following  nouns  and  pronouns  in  sentences  : 

As  subject  nominatives — 

spiders  they  the  robin  the  street 

we  autumn       circus  holidays 

As  nominatives  by  address — 

boys  Mary  child  I^ero 

men  rose  river       the  name  of  the  teacher 

As  predicate  nominatives — 

the  Profile      shadow-tail       pearl  weaver 

exercise  home  Hiawatha        brothers 


132     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 

THE  AGREEMENT  OF  A  VERB  WITH  ITS  SUBJECT  NOMINATIVE. 

Learn  the  following  forms  : 

Singular 

Plural 

1st  person 

I        am 

we     are 

^d  person 

you    are 
thou  art 

you    are 

M  person 

he      is 

they  are 

1st  person 

I        was 

we    were 

2d  person 

you    were 
thou  wast 

you   were 

3d  person 

he      was 

they  were 

1st  person 

I        have 

we     have 

2d  person 

you    have 
thou  hast 

you   have 

M  person 

he      has 

they  have 

1st  person 

I        had 

we     had 

2d  person 

you    had 
thou  hadst 

you    had 

3d  person 

he      had 
Singular 

they  had 

1st  person 

I    run,    play, 
make,  etc. 

study,   learn. 

2d  person 

you  run,  play, 
make,  etc. 

study,  learn, 

- 

thou  runnest. 

playest,  stud- 

iest,  learnest 

,  makest,  etc. 

3d  person 

he  runs,  plays,  i 
makes,  etc. 

studies,  learns. 

AGREEMENT  OF  VERB  WITH  SUBJECT  NOMINATIVE.    133 

Plural 

\st  person  we  run,    play,   study,  learn, 

make,  etc. 
2d  person  you  run,  play,  study,  learn, 

make,  etc. 
i^d  person  they  run,  play,  study,  learn, 

make,  etc. 

It  will  be  seen  that  verbs  have  different  forms  as  their  sub- 
jects nominative  differ  in  person  and  number.  We  say  that  a 
verb  has  the  same  person  and  number  that  its  subject  has. 
Hence  the  rule  : 

A  verb  must  agree  in  person  and  number  with  its  subject 
nominative. 

Supply  the  proper  forms  of  the  verb  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

You not  at  home  yesterday. 

We sorry  not  to  see  you. 

He not  going  to  the  library. 

they  sick  on  the  sea  voyage  ? 

you  not  sorry  that  it  rains  ? 

he  not  fortunate  to  get  the  position? 

you  not  seen  the  collection  of  pictures! 

The  birds  not  learned  to  fly  yet. 

Supply  subjects  for  the  following  sentences  : 

had  seen  the  great  T^atural  Bridge. 

are  disappointed  not   to   stay  in   San  Francisco 

longer. 


134     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


was  beautiful  in  California. 


Has  seen  how  the  buds  are  protected  from  the 

winter's  cold? 

State  the  number  and  person  of  each  verb  in  the  selections 
in  Chapter  XXXIII.,  VI.,  thus  :  has  ceased  is  a  verb  of  the 
third  person,  singular  number,  in  agreement  with  its  subject, 
rain. 

Write  a  sentence  using  spiders  as  a  subject  nominative  ;  as 
a  nominative  by  address ;  as  a  predicate  nominative ;  and  as 
an  absolute  nominative  :  the  thought  being  the  beauty  of  the 
spiders'  webs,  for  one  set  of  sentences  ;  the  seeming  cruelty  of 
the  spider,  for  another  set  of  sentences  ;  and,  the  usefulness  of 
spiders,  for  a  third  set  of  sentences. 


CHAPTER  XXXV. 

THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

I. 

1.  The  President's  home  in  Washington  is  called  the 
Executive  Mansion. 

Who  is  represented  as  the  owner  of  the  home  in  this  sen- 
tence ?     By  what  form  of  the  noun  is  ownership  expressed  ? 

2.  We  have  read  Holmes's  poem,  "  Grandmother's  Story 
of  Bunker  Hill." 

What  is  the  first  possessive  form  in  this  sentence  ?     The 
second  ?    Do  these  forms  represent  the  owner  or  the  author  9 

3.  Whitney's  cotton  gin  separates  the  seeds  from  the 
cotton  fibers.     It  was  invented  by  Eli  Whitney  in  1792. 


THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE.  135 

What  is  the  possessive  form  in  this  sentence  ?  Does  it 
represent  owner,  author ,  or  inventor  9 

4.  The  sun's  warm  rays  start  the  grass  to  growing. 

5.  There  is  no  warmth  in  the  moon's  light. 

Could  we  say  the  warm  rays /rom  the  sun  ?  The  light /roTTi 
the  moon  ?    Do  not  these  possessives  represent  source  9 

6.  The  milliner's  window  was  gay  with  a  display  of 
ladies'  hats. 

What  is  the  first  possessive  form  in  the  above  sentence  ? 
Does  it  denote  ownership  ?  What  is  the  second  possessive 
form  in  this  sentence  ?  Does  it  denote  the  owner  or  describe 
the  kind  of  hats  ? 

7.  The  moon's  distance  from  the  earth  is  about  240,000 
miles. 

8.  The  boys  enjoyed  a  week's  vacation  in  the  Maine 
woods. 

In  the  above  sentences  the  possessive  form  moon's  does  not 
denote  possession,  nor  does  the  form  tveek's  denote  ownership. 
These  forms  are  modifiers  of  the  nouns  distance  and  vacation. 
In  the  first  sentence  it  tells  what  distance,  in  the  second  sen- 
tence it  tells  how  long  a  vacation. 

Every  possessive  form  is  a  modifier  of  some  noun.  It  may 
express  actual  ownership,  or  some  other  modifying  relation. 

Noitn^  and  pronouns  haA)ing  the  possessive  form  are  in 
the  possessive  case. 

State  what  nouns  in  the  above  sentences  are  in  the  posses- 
sive case  and  tell  what  noun  each  modifies. 


136     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

II. 

Find  the  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case  in  the  following 
selections,  state  what  each  modifies,  and  what  noun  each  repre- 
sents. 

1.  Washington  established  his  home  at  Mount  Yernon. 

2.  Whittier  thought  "  The  Pageant "  the  best  of  his 
poems  of  winter. 

3.  On  balancing  boughs 

Birds  were  singing  their  carol,  a  jubilant  hymn 
to  the  Highest. 

4.  "  O  Bluebird,  up  in  the  maple  tree. 

Shaking  your  throat  with  such  bursts  of  glee, 
How  did  you  happen  to  be  so  blue  ? 

Did  you  steal  a  bit  of  sky  for  your  crest  ? 

And  fasten  blue  violets  into  your  breast  ? 
Tell  me,  I  pray  you,  tell  me  true !  " 

5.  "  In  and  out 

The  chipping  sparrow,  in  her  coat  of  brown, 
Steals  silently  lest  I  should  mark  her  nest." 

6.  The  boy  whose  speech  is  true  and  whose  conduct  is 
pure  and  honorable,  has  made  a  good  beginning  of  life. 

III. 

Change  to  the  possessive  form  each  of  the  following  posses- 
sive phrases  (write  each  on  the  board)  : 

The  shell  of  an  egg ;  the  life  of  a  bird ;  the  beauty  of 
the  nest ;  the  color  of  the  clouds ;  the  length  of  the  river ; 
the  noise  of  the  falls ;  the  hut  of  the  trapper ;  the  fidelity  of 


THE  OBJECTIVE  CASE.  137 

the  (log ;  the  tears  of  the  child ;  the  reflection  from  the 
water ;  a  vacation  lasting  two  weeks ;  a  visit  lasting  a 
month ;  a  sickness  continuing  a  year ;  the  rewai'tl  of  him 
who  endures ;  the  loss  of  him  whose  house  was  burned. 

In  which  of  the  above  is  the  possessive  form  in  better  usage, 
and  in  which  the  possessive  phrase  9 

Let  each  pupil  write  a  sentence  containing  one  of  the  above 
as  a  possessive  form,  and  two  sentences,  each  containing  one  of 
the  above  possessive  phrases. 


CHAPTER    XXXVI, 

THE  OBJECTIVE  CASE. 


The  Direct  Object  of  a  Verb, 

1.  The  red-eyed  vireo  makes  a  dainty  nest. 

2.  He  chooses  a  slender  sapling  for  his  home. 

3.  He  hangs  a  basket  of  birch-bark  from  the  fork  of 
one  of  its  twigs. 

4.  He  lines  this  basket  with  white  dry  leaves,  a  bit  of 
wasp's  nest,  or  some  delicate  woolly  substance. 

5.  The  mother-bird  lays  four  beautiful  white  eggs  in 
this  soft  cradle. 

What  word  expresses  action  in  the  first  sentence  ?  What  is 
the  subject  of  that  verb  ?  What  does  the  vireo  make  ?  What, 
then,  is  the  object  of  the  action  ? 

What  is  the  subject,  what  is  the  verb,  and  what  is  the 
object  of  the  action   of  the  verb,  in  the   second   sentence  ? 


138     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

in  the  third  sentence  ?  in  the  fourth  sentence  ?  in  the  fifth 
sentence  ? 

The  direct  object  of  a  verb  is  that  noun  or  pronoun  that 
receives  the  action  exerted  by  the  subject. 

The  direct  object  of  a  "verb  is  in  the  objective  case. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case  is  governed  by  the 
verb  of  which  it  is  the  object. 

What  nouns  in  the  above  sentences  are  the  direct  objects  of 
verbs,  and  therefore  in  the  objective  case  ? 

Make  complete  sentences  by  supplying  direct  objects  in  the 
following : 

The  Indians  built  .      They  caught  for  their 

food.     The  women  wove  coarse .     The  men  shot  

with  arrows.     In  the  woods  I  saw ,  I  heard ,  and  I 

found  .     The  children   are  bringing .     They  will 

make  .     They  like  .     The  rivers  carry  on 

their  waters  ;   they  turn  .     The  sun  warms  ;   it 

gives and . 

State  the  subject  of  each  of  these  sentences.  What  nouns 
are  in  the  objective  case  ?     By  what  verb  is  each  governed  ? 

Find  the  direct  objects  of  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  : 

The  G-reat  Artist  paints  most  beautiful  pictures,  and  the 
poor  may  see  them  as  well  as  the  rich.  The  brown,  bare 
earth  is  His  canvas.  He  warms  it  with  the  rays  of  April's 
sun,  and  moistens  it  with  her  gentle  showers,  and,  lo  !  green 
grass  clothes  the  hillsides ;  leaves,  soft  and  delicate  as  silk, 
cover  the  dark  boughs  of  the  trees;  a  thousand  blossoms 
delight  our  eyes,  wondrous  in  color,  marvellous  in  perfume. 


THE  OBJECTIVE  CASE.  139 

varied  in  form.  No  human  artist  has  on  his  palette  such 
pinks  as  the  Great  Artist  gives  to  the  apple  blooms,  such 
blues  as  those  ^vith  which  He  paints  the  violets,  such  gold 
as  that  with  which  He  gilds  the  common  dandelion  and 
buttercup. 

II. 

The  Indirect  Object  of  a  Verb'. 

1.  Hawthorne  has  told  us  many  interesting  stories  in 
"The  Wonder  Book." 

2.  My  brother  sent  me  a  photograph  of  the  Capitol  in 
Washington. 

3.  The  great  prostrate  trees  showed  the  men  the 
strength  of  the  hurricane. 

4.  Olive  Thorne  MiUer  teaches  her  readers  many  inter- 
esting facts  about  birds. 

5.  Do  me  this  favor, — bring  me  a  branch  of  holly. 

6.  We  asked  him  the  way  to  Shadow  Town  Ferry. 

What  has  Hawthorne  told  ?  What  is  the  direct  object  of 
has  told  ?  To  whom  has  Hawthorne  told  the  stories  ?  May 
we  correctly  say  '^Hawthorne  has  told  to  us,  etc.  ?  What  is 
the  direct  object  of  sent  in  the  next  sentence  ?  What  preposi- 
tion may  we  insert  before  me  9  In  the  third  sentence  what 
preposition  may  we  insert'  before  the  men  9  What  is  the  direct 
object  of  shoioed9  What  is  the  direct  object  of  teaches  in  the 
fourth  sentence  ?  Before  what  word  may  we  insert  to  9  In 
the  next  sentence  what  may  we  insert  before  me9  In  the  last 
sentence  what  may  we  insert  before  him? 

Certain  verbs,  tell,  send,  show,  teach,  do,  bring,  ask,  etc., 
are  generally  followed  by  an  objective  noun  or  pronoun  before 


140     TEE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

which  tOy  for,  or  o/,  may  be  inserted  without  changing  the 
meaning.  Such  an  objective  is  the  indirect  object  of  the  verb. 
The  direct  object,  stating  what  is  told,  sent,  shown,  etc., 
usually  follows. 

The  indirect  object  of  a  verb  is  in  the  objective  case. 

What  are  the  indirect  objects  in  the  following  sentences  ? 

Y.     Teach  thy  tongue  silence. 

8.  And  moreover,  because  the  preacher  was  wise,  he 
still  taught  the  people  knowledge. 

9.  The  dear  God  give  thee  safety  from  all  perils  of  soul 
or  body. 

10.  So  all  the  little  animals  gave  him  the  freedom  of 
their  city.  The  birds  shoAved  him  their  nests,  hidden  in 
leafy  branches,  or  concealed  in  tall  tufts  of  grass ;  the  squir- 
rels taught  him  their  language ;  the  great  eagle  brought 
him  her  two  most  beautiful  feathers  to  wear  in  his  cap. 

III. 

The  Predicate  Object. 

1.  The  Indians  made  Smith  a  prisoner. 

2.  John  Smith  named  the  country  New  England  in 
1614. 

3.  While  on  board  the  Mayflower  the  Pilgrims  chose 
John  Carver  their  governor. 

4.  Washington  appointed  Alexander  Hamilton  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury. 

5.  We  have  called  Virginia  the  Mother  of  Presidents. 

Verbs  meaning  to  make,  name,  appoint,  choose,  call,  and 
the    like — called  factitive  verbs — may    be  followed    by    two 


THE  OBJECTIVE  CASE.  141 

objects :  one,  the  direct  object  of  the  verb,  naming  the  object 
that  receives  the  action  ;  the  other,  supplementing  or  complet- 
ing the  meaning  of  the  verb,  the  predicate  object. 

The  predicate  object  of  a  verb  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Name  the  predicate  objects  in  the  above  sentences. 

lY. 

The  Object  of  a  Preposition. 

Of  all  the  lovely  ways  leading  out  of  the  small  town  of 
Stratford,  the  way  to  Shottery  was  the  loveliest  to  the 
thinking  of  the  young  Shakespeares  and  to  the  heart  of 
their  mother.  The  small  hamlet  was  a  short  mile  from 
Stratford,  and  thither  the  children  made  constant  pilgrim- 
ages, traversing  the  little  path  that  wound  across  the 
meadows,  now  beneath  the  shade  of  stately  elms  through 
which  the  sunlight  flickered  in  shifting  patterns,  now  by 
tangled  hedges  where  the  flowers  nodded  a  welcome  and 
the  birds  sought  to  detain  them  with  their  songs. 

— From  "Will  Shakespeare's  Little  Lad,"  by  Imogen  Clark. 

In  this   selection  are  sixteen  prepositional  phrases.     Give 

each  preposition  and  the  noun  of  its  phrase,   thus :    of 

waySf  of town,  etc. 

In  a  prepositional  phrase  the  noun  or  pronoun  related  by 
the  preposition  to  some  other  word  in  the  sentence  is  the  object 
of  the  preposition. 

The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 


142     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Y. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  that  is  the  direct^  indirect,  or  pred- 
icate ohject  of  a  verh,  or  the  object  of  a  preposition,  is  in  the 
objective  case. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case  is  said  to  he 
governed  by  the  verb  or  preposition  of  which  it  is  the  object. 

Find  the  objectives  in  the  following  selection,  state  what 
kind  of  an  object  each  is,  and  by  what  it  is  governed  : 

When  thy  father  was  no  older  than  thou  art  he  found 
the  little  beast  at  Snitterfield,  harried  by  some  boys  who 
threw  sticks  and  stones  at  the  small  creature  and  lamed  him 
so  that  he  could  run  no  more,  but  was  at  the  mercy  of  his 
persecutors.  It  was  then  that  thy  father  came  upon  them 
at  their  evil  work  and  gave  them  a  good  threshing,  both 
with  his  fists  and  his  tongue,  till  they  were  forced  to  run 
away,  for  they  were  both  cowards  at  heart,  as  are  all  who 
attack  poor  dumb  things,  or  fight  the  helpless.  When  they 
were  gone,  thy  father  searched  for  the  little  dog  and  found 
him  at  last  under  some  bushes,  whither  he  had  craAvled  to 
be  out  of  harm's  way.  He  lifted  him  gently  in  his  arms, 
for  the  thin,  yellow  body  was  covered  with  cuts  and  bruises 
and  one  small  paw  dangled  helpless-like.  The  little  creature 
just  looked  for  a  moment  out  of  his  sad,  hunted  eyes,  then, 
seeing  only  kindness  in  my  Willy's  face,  he  put  forth  his 
tongue  and  kissed  the  hand  that  held  him. 

In  the  above  quotation  from  ^^Will  Shakespeare^s  Little 
Lad/^  Mistress  Shakespeare  tells  Hamlet  Shakespeare,  her 
grandson,  the  story  of  the  little  dog  whom  they  call  Silver. 


THE  ADVERBIAL   OBJECTIVE.  143 

The  last  seutence  gives  you  examples  of  the  indirect  object 
and  the  predicate  object.  Find  them,  and  name  the  direct 
objects. 

Write  sentences  containing  nouns  used  as  the  direct  object 
of  a  verb,  the  indirect  object  of  a  verb,  the  predicate  object j  and 
the  object  of  a  preposition. 

CHAPTER  XXXVII. 
I. 

THE  ADVERBIAL  OBJECTIVE. 

1.  We  floated  two  miles  down  that  beautiful  stream. 

2.  We  camped  a  weeh  in  one  of  the  prettiest  spots  on  its 
banks. 

3.  The  canoe  weighed  tTwrtaj  jpounds. 

4.  Our  week  in  the  Maine  woods  co^i  forty  dolla/rs. 

5.  Thursday  we  reached  home. 

In  the  above  sentences  the  italicized  words  are  equivalent 
to  prepositional  phrases,  a  distance  of  two  7niles,  during  a  week, 
a  weight  of  thirty  pounds,  the  sum  of  forty  dollars,  on  Thurs- 
day ;  the  nouns  are  therefore  in  the  objective  case.  The  pre- 
positional phrases,  however,  have  the  force  of  adverbs.  We 
therefore  call  these  nouns,  miles,  week,  pounds,  dollars,  Thurs- 
day, adverbial  objectives.  As  objectives  they  are  governed  by 
prepositions  that  are  understood,  while  adverbially  they  may 
modify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 

Nowns  of  measxire  (of  distcmce^  time,  weight,  cost,  value, 
and  the  like),  a/nd  nouns  used  to  denote  the  time  of  cm  occur- 
rence, are  sometimes  used  adverbially.  They  are  then  ad- 
verbial objectives. 


144     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Find  the  adverbial  objectives  in  the  following  sentences  : 

6.  The  storm  lasted  a  week,  and  during  this  time  we 
went  not  a  mile  from  the  cabin. 

Y.  That  night  many  a  brave  ship  was  broken  by  the 
fury  of  the  gale. 

8.     Eighteen  dollars'  worth  of  gold  weighs  one  ounce. 

^.  The  sun  that  brief  December  day 

Kose  cheerless  over  hills  of  gray. 

10.         All  day  the  gusty  north- wind  bore 
The  loosening  drift  its  breath  before. 

II. 
THE  COGNATE  OBJECTIVE. 

1.  He  dreamed  a  dream  of  life  in  the  city,  of  noisy 
ways  and  hurrying  men,  of  crowded  tenements  and  magni- 
ficent palaces. 

2.  The  poor  man  lived  his  life  in  want  and  the  rich 
man  lived  his  life  in  abundance,  yet  trouble  knocked  at  the 
door  of  each. 

3.  Many  a  man  unknown  to  fam.e  lives  the  life  and  dies 
the  death  of  a  hero. 

The  word  cognate  means  related.  When  the  objective 
has  a  meaning  closely  related  to  that  of  the  verb  it  is  called 
a  cognate  objective. 

Such  cognate  objectives  are  to  dream  a  dream.,  to  live  a  life, 
to  die  a  death,  to  dance  a  dance,  to  dance  a  waltz,  to  speak  a 
I,  etc. 


THE  SUBJECT  OF  AN  INFINITIVE.  145 


III. 

THE  SUBJECT  OF  AN  INFINITIVE. 

An  infinitive  is  a  verb  form  in  which  the  verb  is  preceded 
by  to  either  expressed  or  understood. 

1.  I  desire  you  to  learn  the  habits  of  birds. 

2.  The  birds  wish  their  nests  to  be  secure  against 
enemies. 

What  is  it  that  I  desi?'e  in  the  first  sentence  ?  What  is  the 
full  object  of  desire  ?  AVhat  is  the  complete  object  of  wish  in 
the  second  sentence  ?  What  does  the  predicate  adjective 
secure  modify  ?  What,  then,  is  the  subject  of  the  infinitive 
to  be? 

•  3.     They  thought  me  to  be  of  English  birth. 

4.  They  judged  him  to  be  innocent  of  any  wrong  in- 
tention. 

What  is  the  object  of  the  verb  thought  in  the  third  sen- 
tence ?  What  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  to  be  ?  In  what  case 
is  it  ?  What  is  the  object  of  the  verb  judged  in  the  fourth 
sentence  ?  What  infinitive  is  a  part  of  that  object  ?  What  is 
the  subject  of  the  infinitive  ?    In  what  case  is  it  ? 

Ths  siibject  of  an  infinitive  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Note  :  The  preposition  to  is  omitted  from  the  infinitive 
form  after  certain  verbs — see,  hear,  feel,  bid,  make,  Tcnow,  and 
some  others — when  such  infinitive  is  preceded  by  a  subject. 

Find  each  infinitive  in  the  following  sentences,  the  subject 
of  the  infinitive,  and  state  the  case  of  such  subjects  : 

5.  I  heard  the  bells  ring. 

10 


146     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAM3IAR. 

6.  We  saw  the  blue  Khine  sweep  along. 

7.  They  bade  us  be  of  good  courage. 

8.  The  teacher  made  the  boy  see  his  mistake. 


CHAPTER    XXXVIII. 

THE  AP POSITIVE  USE  OF  NOUNS. 

I. 

1.  Miles  Standish,  the  Puritan  Captain,  sent  John 
Alden,  his  messenger,  to  Priscilla,  the  Mayflower  of  Ply- 
mouth. 

What  is  the  subject  nominative  of  the  verb  sent  9  What 
group  of  words  is  used  to  describe  that  subject  nominative  ? 
What  is  the  noun  in  this  group  of  words  ? 

A  noun  used  to  describe  or  characterize  another  noun  or  a 
pronoun  is  in  apposition  to  it.  Thus,  Captain  is  in  ap- 
position to  Miles  Standish. 

What  other  nouns  are  used  appositively  in  the  sentence 
given  ? 

What  nouns  are  in  apposition  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  to  what  is  each  in  apposition  ? 

2.  Then  lagoo,  the  great  boaster, 
He  the  marvellous  story  teller, 
He  the  traveller  and  the  talker, 

3.  He  the  friend  of  old  Kokoniis, 
Made  a  bow  for  Hiawatha. 


THE  APPOSITIVE   USE  OF  NOUNS.  147 

4.  This  river,  the  Merrimack,  turns  more  cotton  spindles 
than  any  other  in  the  world. 

5.  It  AYas  he,  the  boy  whom  they  had  called  coward 
because  he  Av^ould  not  fight,  who  had  risked  his  life  to  save 
that  of  John  Dean,  his  enemy. 

6.  The  fault  is  mine,  John  Dean's. 

II. 

An  appositive  noun  is  of  the  sa/rae  case  as  the  noun  or 
pronoun  to  which  it  is  in  apposition. 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  using  appositive 
nouns : 

1.  John  Armstrong, ,  shoes  a  horse  well. 

2.  Please  record  next  my  name, . 

3.  You,  ,  may  tell  me  the  story  of  Hiawatha's 

shooting  the  deer. 

4.  "  The  Barefoot  Boy  "  was  written  by  Whittier, 


5.     The  governor  of  this  State, ,  will  be 

present  at  the  State  Fair. 

How  can  you  distinguish  an  appositive  from  a  predicate 
nominative  ? 

Use  each  of  the  following  nouns,  first  as  an  appositive,  and 
then  as  a  predicate  nominative  : 

The  general ;  housekeeper ;  his  Shetland  pony ;  the 
largest  city  in  the  United  States;  the  first  public  school 
in  America ;  the  most  northern  town  in  the  United  States ; 
the  first  president ;  the  chairman  of  the  school  committee ; 
my  favorite  book  ;  the  smallest  bird ;  the  largest  animal. 


148     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

III. 

In  the  following  selection  find  the  appositive  nouns,  and 
the  predicate  nominatives  : 

Many  a  E'ew  Englander,  who  had  passed  his  boyhood 
and  youth  in  obscurity,  afterwards  attained  to  a  fortune 
which  he  never  could  have  foreseen  even  in  his  most  ambi- 
tious dreams.  John  Adams,  the  second  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  equal  of  crowned  kings,  was  once  a 
schoolmaster  and  a  country  lawyer.  Hancock,  the  first 
signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  served  his  ap- 
prenticeship with  a  merchant;  Samuel  Adams,  afterwards 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  was  a  small  tradesman  and  a  tax- 
gatherer  ;  General  Lincoln  was  a  farmer.  General  Warren 
a  physician,  and  General  Knox  a  bookbinder.  General 
Nathaniel  Greene,  the  best  soldier,  except  Washington,  in 
the  Kevolutionary  army,  was  a  Quaker  and  a  blacksmith. 


CHAPTER   XXXIX. 

COLLECTIVE,   ABSTRACT,   AND   CONCRETE  NOUNS. 

I. 

1.  The  drove  of  sheep  belongs  to  the  Town  Fann, 

2.  The  drove  of  sheep  were  bleating  piteously. 

3.  The  I*^ew  England  States  is  the  northeastern  division 
of  the  United  States. 

4.  The  New  England  States  are  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Yermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhod^  Island,  and  Connecticut. 


COLLECTIVE,   ABSTRACT,   AND  CONCRETE  NOUNS.     149 

5.  The  committee  is  desirous  of  taking  the  wisest  action 
in  this  matter. 

6.  The  committee  are  of  differing  opinions  as  to  what 
the  wisest  action  is. 

A  single  name  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  a  collection  of 
individual  objects  of  the  same  kind.  A  drove  of  sheep,  a  hevy 
or  swarm  of  bees,  a.  flock  of  birds,  a  school  of  fish,  are  examples 
of  such  collective  nouns.  Men  acting  or  associated  together 
may  form  an  army,  senate,  committee,  jury,  etc. 

A  collective  iiouu  is  a  noun^  of  singular  number  in 
form^  naming  a  collection  of  individuals  of  the  sa/me  hind, 

A  verb  in  agreement  with  a  collective  noun  is  of  singular 
numher  when  the  noun  is  thought  of  as  a  single  hody  /  it  is 
of  plural  number  when  the  noun  is  thought  of  as  a  number 
of  individual  objects. 

In  the  first  sentence  we  think  of  the  drove  of  sheep  as  a 
whole,  in  the  second  sentence  as  a  number  of  individual  sheep. 
Explain  the  number  of  the  verb  in  each  sentence.  Explain  the 
number  of  the  verb  in  each  of  the  other  sentences. 

Select  the  proper  form  of  the  verb  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences,  and  give  reasons  for  your  choice  : 

7.  The  United  States  {is^  are)  a  powerful  nation. 

8.  The  United  States  {madntain,  maintains)  the  Monroe 
Doctrine. 

9.  The  United  States  {have,  has)  each  its  own  State 
government. 

10.  The  Girls'  Friendly  Society  {7neet,  meets)  on  Wed- 
nesday. 


150    THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAM 31 AR. 

11.  The  football  eleven  of  the  Lowell  High  School  {has^ 
have)  arrived. 

12.  The  football  eleven  {is^  are)  at  {its^  their)  several 
homes. 

II. 

A  flower  is  beautiful,  fragrant,  delicate  ;  it  grows,  withers, 
dies ;  it  has  size,  shape,  color.  Our  idea  of  a  flower  is  made 
from  these  qualities.  When  we  think  of  iron,  we  have  in  mind 
not  alone  that  it  is  dark  in  color,  but  that  it  is  hard  and 
heavy.  Our  idea  of  snow  is  of  something  that  has  form  and 
size ;  that  is  white,  cold,  opaque,  and  crystalline. 

A  concrete  noun  is  one  that  presents  to  us  the  notion 
of  several  qualities  united  in  one  object. 

An  abstract  noun  is  one  that  names  a  quality. 
Nouns  that  are  names  of  feelings^  actions,  and  powers  are, 
also,  abstract  nouns. 

Abstract  nouns  of  qualities  are  beauty,  fragrance,  delicacy, 
hardness,  blackness,  size,  shape,  etc. 

Abstract  nouns  of  feelings  are  love,  anger,  sorroiv,  pride, 
sliame,  etc. 

Abstract  nouns  of  actions  are  groivth,  motion,  choice,  separa- 
tion, deiiial,  etc. 

Abstract  nouns  of  powers  are  memory,  sight,  smell,  touch, 
taste,  etc. 

Describe  some  object,  writing  upon  the  board  the  qualities 
that  it  has,  the  things  that  it  can  do  if  capable  of  action,  etc., 
and  then  from  this  list  of  qualities  and  actions  form  abstract 
nouns. 


THE  PARSING   OF  A  NOUN.  151 

Selection  for  discussion  of  concrete  and  abstract  nouns  : 
There  hung  just  inside  my  window  a  box  of  strings,  and 
for  two  or  three  days,  no  matter  how  many  I  put  into  it, 
when  I  went  to  look  the  next  time  none  could  be  found.  I 
had  talked  to  the  little  girls  about  it  and  scolded  the  little 
boys  in  the  house,  but  no  one  knew  anything  about  the 
matter,  when,  one  afternoon,  as  I  Avas  sitting  there,  a  beauti- 
ful bird  fluttered  down  from  the  willow  tree,  perched  on 
the  ANdndow-sill,  winked  his  bright  eye,  and  without  saying 
"If  you  j^ease,"  dipped  his  naughty  little  beak  into  the 
string-box  and  flew  off  with  a  piece  of  pink  twine. 

— Kate  Douglas  Wiggin. 

The  above  selection  contains  no  abstract  nouns.  The  dis- 
cussion should  be  about  the  abstract  nouns  that  are  suggested 
by  words  in  this  selection.  Thus  :  string  suggests  length,  color, 
strength;  beautiful  suggests  ieautg ;  etc. 


CHAPTER    XL. 
THE  PARSING  OF  A  NOUN. 

I. 

Parsing  is  tlie  gra/mrnatical  description  of  a  word,  to- 
gether with  a  statement  of  its  relation  to  other  words  in  the 
Sentence. 

In  parsing  a  noun  state,  in  order : 

I.  The  kind  of  a  noun  that  it  is. 
II.  Its  person,  number,  and  gender. 
III.  Its  case,  Avith  the  reason  for  it. 


152     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

This  (III.)  includes,  for  the  ^N^ominative  Case,  the  state- 
ment of  what  verb  it  is  the  subject  nominative  or  the 
predicate  nominative;  for  the  Possessive  Case,  what  noun 
it  modifies ;  for  the  Objective  Case,  of  what  verb  or  prepo- 
sition it  is  the  object. 

If  the  noun  is  nominative  by  address,  or  nominative 
absolute,  it  should  be  so  stated ;  and  if  it  is  an  adverbial  or 
cognate  objective,  its  relation  should  be  explained. 

If  it  is  the  subject  of  an  infinitive,  the  infinitive  should 
be  named. 

If  it  is  an  appositive,  the  noun  which  it  explains  should 

be  named. 

II. 

Eeview  the  Cases  of  Nouns  by  parsing  the  nouns  in  the 
sentences  given  in  Chapters  XXXIII.,  XXXV.,  XXXVI., 
XXXVII.,  XXXVIII.  and  XXXIX. 


CHAPTER   XLI. 
A  SELECTION  FOR  STUDY  AND  MEMORY. 

I. 

The  little  brook  had  had  a  very  merry  time  all  summer. 
It  had  chattered  and  laughed ;  it  had  played  hide-and-seek 
with  the  roots  of  the  trees  along  its  way ;  it  had  sparkled 
at  the  sun  and  smiled  at  the  flowers  and  listened  to  the 
songs  of  the  birds  and  the  whispering  of  the  leaves  and  the 
music  of  the  winds;  it  had  stolen  among  the  mosses  and 
washed  the  long  leaves  of  the  tall  bulrushes  and  carried 
many  a  fairy-boat  of  branch  and  leaf  adown  its  dimpling 


A   SELECTION  FOB  STUDY  AND  MEMORY.  153 

waters.  But  when  the  leaves  left  the  tall  trees  and  hovered 
near  to  the  ground,  and  the  little  buds  put  on  their  water- 
proof cloaks,  and  the  North  Wind  said,  "  The  cold  is  com- 
ing!" the  little  brook  rippled,  ''It  is  time  to  build  my 
winter  palace."  So  he  threw  across  his  home  long  and 
slender  beams  of  ice  crystals.  Then  across  these  beams 
he  wove  the  most  marvelous  ceiling,  all  of  crystal.  He 
imitated  the  leaves  of  the  forest  and  the  branches  of  the 
trees ;  he  hung  silvery  mosses  so  that  they  seemed  to  grow 
downward ;  he  carved  beautiful  fern  leaves  of  ice ;  he  left 
long  windows  like  glass  for  the  gladness  of  heaven  to  shine 
through,  and  open  doors  where  he  might  breathe  the 
delightful  cold  air  of  winter;  he  caught  and  bent  down 
the  tops  of  the  bulrushes,  and  hung  them  thick  with  dia- 
mond drops;  he  imprisoned  the  beams  of  the  sun  and  the 
moon  and  made  them  light  his  Avinter  palace.  Such  a 
wonderful  palace  as  it  was !  Did  I  say  that  the  little 
brook  built  it  ?  Oh,  no  !  he  employed  the  most  wonderful 
builder  in  the  world — that  roguish,  elfin  fellow.  Jack  Frost. 

II. 

Down  swept  the  chill  wind  from  the  mountain  peak. 
From  the  snow  five  thousand  summers  old ; 

On  open  wold  and  hilltop  bleak 
It  had  gathered  all  the  cold, 

And  it  whirled  it  like  sleet  on  the  wanderer's  cheek ; 

It  carried  a  shiver  everywhere 

From  the  unleaved  boughs  and  the  pasture  bare ; 

The  little  brook  heard  it  and  built  a  roof 

'Neath  which  he  could  house  him,  winter-proof ; 


154     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

All  night  by  the  white  stars'  frosty  gleams 

He  groined  his  arches  and  matched  his  beams ; 

Slender  and  clear  were  his  crystal  spars 

As  the  lashes  of  light  that  trim  the  stars ; 

He  sculptured  every  summer  delight 

In  his  halls  and  chambers  out  of  sight ; 

Sometimes  his  tinkling  waters  slipt 

Down  through  a  frost-leaved  forest  crypt, 

Long,  sparkling  aisles  of  steel-stemmed  trees 

Bending  to  counterfeit  a  breeze ; 

Sometimes  the  roof  no  fretwork  knew 

But  silvery  mosses  that  downward  grew ; 

Sometimes  it  was  carved  in  sharp  relief 

With  quaint  arabesques  of  ice-fern  leaf ; 

Sometimes  it  was  simply  smooth  and  clear 

For  the  gladness  of  heaven  to  shine  through,  and  here 

He  had  caught  the  nodding  bulrush-tops 

And  hung  them  thickly  with  diamond  drops. 

That  crystalled  the  beams  of  moon  and  sun. 

And  made  a  star  of  every  one  : 

l^o  mortal  builder's  most  rare  device 

Could  match  this  winter-palace  of  ice ; 

'Twas  as  if  every  image  that  mirrored  lay 

In  his  depths  serene  through  the  summer  day, 

Each  fleeting  shadow  of  earth  and  sky — 

Lest  the  happy  model  should  be  lost — 
Had  been  mimicked  in  fairy  masonry 

By  the  elfin  builders  of  the  frost. 

—From  "The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal," 

by  James  Russell  Lowell. 


A  SELECTION  FOR  STUDY  AND  MEMORY. 


155 


Lowell  says  that  this  picture  of  the  little  brook  was 
drawn  from  one  near  Watertown,  which  really  "  runs  too 
smftly  for  Frost  to  catch  it." 

III. 

Words  for  dictionary  study.  Find  the  meaning  suitable  to 
the  idea  in  the  selection,  and  write  it  opposite  the  word  : 


wold 

unleaved 

gleams 

groined 

arches 

matched 

beams 

crystal 

spars 

lashes 

trim 

crypt 

aisles 

counterfeit 

fretwork 

relief 

quaint 

arabesques 

bulrushes 

device 

match 

serene 

model 

mimicked 

masonry 

elfin 

What  is  the  difference  between  tmleaved  and  leafless  9    Did 

you  notice  any 

interesting  derivations  in  looking  up  the  mean- 

ings  of  these  words  ? 

What  is  meant  by  snow  ^2;^  thousand  summers  old?  Are 
there  any  mountains  where  the  snow  never  melts,  even  in  sum- 
mer ?  Which  would  give  the  idea  that  the  wind  stripped  the 
leaves  from  the  branches,  unleaved  or  leafless  9  Did  you  ever 
watch  the  freezing  of  water  ?  How  is  ice  formed  ?  What 
things  have  you  noticed  imitated  in  the  ice  over  a  brook  ?  in 
the  frost  pictures  on  windows  ?  What  is  the  gladness  of  heaven  9 
What  are  the  diamond  drops  on  the  bulrushes  ?  A  crystal  of 
ice,  like  a  diamond,  scatters  a  ray  of  light.  What  two  lines  in 
this  extract  give  that  idea  ?  What  did  the  little  brook  take  as 
the  models  for  the  decorations  of  his  palace  ?  What  is  fairy 
masonry  9  Where  have  you  seen  fairy  picture-making  9  What 
do  we  call  the  elfln  builder  of  the  frost  ? 


156     TEE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Note  :  Lowell^s  description  of  June,  the  companion  picture 
to  this,  should  be  carefully  read  and  explained  to  the  class,  and 
may  be  made  a  study  like  this.  If  the  story  is  told  in  pr^e 
before  it  is  read  in  poetry  the  pupils  grasp  the  meaning  and 
appreciate  the  beauty  of  it  more  easily  and  fully.  The  appre- 
ciation of  beauty  in  young  people  is  often  like  a  seed  planted 
in  the  ground — the  first  green  blades  of  growth  appear  not  at 
once,  but  long  after.  But  the  seed  has  not  perished,  and  in 
due  time  it  "^  climbs  to  a  soul  in  grass  and  flowers/^ 


CHAPTER    XLII. 
QUOTATIONS. 

I. 

1.  a.     My  mother  taught  me  how  to  sew. 

h.     Mary  says,  "  My  mother  taught  me  how  to  sew." 
c.     Mary  says  that  her  mother  taught  her  how  to  sew. 

2.  a.     I  make  a  pet  of  my  horse. 

h.     Frank  says,  "  I  make  a  pet  of  my  horse." 
c.     Frank  says  that  he  makes  a  pet  of  his  horse. 

3.  a.    Kindness  makes  all  animals  intelligent. 

1).  "Kindness  makes  all  animals  intelligent,"  said 
Frank's  brother. 

c.  Frank's  brother  said  that  kindness  makes  all  ani- 
mals intelligent. 

4.  a.     Where  did  Longfellow  live  ? 

h.     "  Where  did  Longfellow  live  ?  "  asked  Miss  Gray. 
c.     Miss  Gray  asked  where  Longfellow  lived. 


QUOTATIONS.  157 


5.  a.     He  lived  in  the  Craigie  House,  in  Cambridge. 
h.     "  He  lived  in  the  Craigie  House,  in  Cambridge," 
replied  Alice. 

^     c.     Alice  replied  that  he  lived  in  the  Craigie  House, 
in  Cambridge. 

What  did  Mary  say  ?  (Answer  in  the  exact  words  of  Mary. ) 
What  did  Frank  say  ?  What  did  Frank's  brother  say  ?  What 
did  Miss  Gray  ask  ?    What  did  Alice  reply  ? 

In  each  of  the  above  groups  of  sentences,  the  second  sen- 
tence quotes  the  exact  words  of  the  first,  and  the  third  sentence 
quotes  the  thought  but  not  the  exact  words  of  the  first. 

A  quotation  that  gives  the  exact  words  of  some  speaker  or 
writer  is  a  direct  quotation. 

A  quotation  that  gives  the  thought  hut  not  the  exact  words 
of  s&ms  speaker  or  writer  is  an  indirect  quotation. 

When  a  question  is  indirectly  quoted  it  is  called  an  in- 
direct question. 

The  marks  ( ''  ")  that  inclose  a  direct  quotation  are  called 
quotation  marks. 

A  direct  quotation  is  usually  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  a  comma,  but  quoted  questions  are  followed  by  an 
interrogation  point,  and  quoted  exclamations  are  followed  by 
an  exclamation  mark.  The  second  quotation  mark  is  placed 
after  the  punctuation  point  that  closes  the  quotation. 

II. 

Study  the  quotations  in  the  following  story.  Explain  the 
use  of  capitals,  quotation  marks,  and  the  punctuation  marks 
following  the  quotations  : 


158     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Once  upon  a  time  a  clever  barber  in  Germany  had  a  pet 
starling  that  had  learned  to  talk.  The  barber  had  the  habit 
of  repeating  certain  phrases  over  and  over  again,  and  the 
clever  bird  would  repeat  them  also.  "  !No  man  could  hme 
done  that  better,"  the  barber  would  say  when  he  had  shaved 
a  customer ;  or,  "  I  am  the  best  barber  in  Germany."  When 
he  spoke  of  any  plans  for  the  future  he  would  add,  "  If  the 
fates  are  willing."  And  he  often  told  one  story  that  ended 
with  the  words,  "  B}^  keeping  bad  company."  The  starling 
once  flew  away  from  his  cage  and  joined  some  other  star- 
lings Avho  were  going  to  rob  a  farmer's  grain  field.  But 
they  were  all  caught  in  a  net  which  the  farmer  had  set  for 
them.  When  the  farmer  came  to  take  them  out  of  the  net, 
he  Avas  astonished  to  hear  one  of  the  birds  say,  "  No  man 
could  have  done  that  better."  "  Who  are  you  ?  "  asked  the 
farmer.  "  I  am  the  best  barber  in  Germany,"  replied  the 
bird.  "Then  hoAv  came  you  here?"  asked  the  farmer. 
"  By  keeping  bad  company,"  answered  the  bird.  ^  "  Do  you 
wish,"  said  the  farmer,  "  that  I  should  let  you  go  ?  "  "  If 
the  fates  are  willing,"  answered  the  little  starling. 

In  the  following  conversation  notice  the  use  of  quotation 
marks,  and  the  arrangement  of  the  several  parts  : 

(A  Highland  laddie,  wounded  unto  death,  desires  John 
Broom,  a  lad  who  is  his  devoted  friend,  to  comfort  and 
soothe  him  by  reading  from  the  Bible.) 

"  Is  there  a  Bible  on  yon  table,  laddie  ?  Could  you  read 
a  bit  to  me  ?  " 

*  Note  :  When  a  quotation  is  divided,  quotation  marks  are 
placed  around  each  part  of  the  quotation. 


THE   TITLES  OF  BOOKS,   ESSAYS,   ETC.  159 

There  is  little  need  to  dwell  on  the  bitterness  of  heart 
with  which  John  Broom  confessed — 
^"  I  can't  read  big  words,  McAllister." 
"  Did  you  never  go  to  school  ?  "  asked  the  Scotchman. 
"I  didn't  learn,"  said  the  poor  boy,  "I  played." 

—From  "Jackanapes,"  by  Mrs.  Ewing. 

Use  sentences  1,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  and  this  last  selection,  for 
dictation  work. 


CHAPTER    XLIII. 
THE  TITLES  OF  BOOKS,  ESSAYS,  ETC. 

1.  Captain  January. — Laura  E.  Richards. 

2.  Old  Times  in  the  Colonies. — Charles  Carleton  Coffin. 

3.  The  King  of  the  Golden  River. — John  Ruskin. 

4.  The  Story  of  a  Short  Life. — Juliana  H.  Ewing. 

5.  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill. — Oliver  Wen- 
dell Holmes. 

6.  An  Order  for  a  Picture. — Alice  Gary. 

7.  A-Hunting  of  the  Deer. — Charles  Dudley  Warner. 

8.  Strawberries. — John  Burroughs. 

9.  The  Princes  in  the  Tower. — John  E.  Millais. 

10.  The  Sisters.— Henry  E.  Abbey. 

Here  are  the  titles  of  two  books,  two  short  stories,  two 
poems,  two  essays,  and  two  pictures,  with  the  names  of  the 
authors  and  painters.  The  important  words  of  such  titles  (the 
first  word  and  all  others  except  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and 
articles)  begin  with  capital  letters. 

11.  "  Captain  January  "  is  a  delightful  book. 


160      THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

12.  Miss  Duncan  has  read  to  us  "  The  Story  of  a  Short 
Life  "  and  "  Jackanapes." 

13.  "  Grandmother's  Story  of  Bunker  Hill  "  is  a  very 
spirited  ballad. 

14.  I  like  "A-Hunting  of  the  Deer,"  and  "  StraAvberries." 

15.  "  The  Princes  in  the  Tower  "  represents  two  little 
ill-fated  English  princes. 

16.  "The  Sisters"  represents  an  old-fashioned  room 
with  a  piano  in  it,  at  which  one  of  the  sisters  is  seated, 
while  the  other  stands  near  her. 

When  the  titles  of  books,  essays,  etc.,  are  used  in  sentences, 
they  are  inclosed  in  quotation  marks,  but  they  are  not  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Write  from  dictation  the  following  titles  : 

17.  Under  the  Lilacs. — Louisa  May  Alcott. 

18.  A  Child's  History  of  England. — Charles  Dickens. 

19.  The  Little  Green  Door.— Mary  E.  Wilkins. 

20.  Stories  and  Poems  for  Children. — Celia  Thaxter. 

21.  The  Song  of  Hiawatha. — Henry  W.  Longfellow. 

22.  We  are  reading  "  Timothy's  Quest." 

23.  The  children  recited  "  The  Sandpiper." 

24.  May  I  take  "  The  Jungle  Book  "  ? 

25.  This  is  an  extract  from  "A  Spray  of  Pine." 

26.  We  are  to  write  a  composition  on  "  The  Bee's  Visit 
to  the  Flowers." 

27.  I  have  seen  a  beautiful  picture  called  "  By  the 
Eiverside." 

28.  There  is  a  picture  of  two  squirrels  and  a  bird  called 
"  A  Piper  and  a  Pair  of  ISTut crackers." 


THE  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN.  161 


CHAPTER    XLIV. 
THE  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN. 

I. 

1.  "Who  knows  where  the  rose  gets  its  color  ? 

2.  To  whom  shall  I  send  these  roses  ? 

3.  In  whose  garden  did  they  grow  ? 

4.  "Which  is  the  surer  road  to  success,  idleness  or  in- 
dustry ? 

5.  Which  will  you  choose,  the  path  of  duty  or  the  path 
of  ease  ? 

6.  What  gives  the  cloud  its  silver  lining  ? 

Y.     What  have  you  learned  of  the  honeybee  ? 

What  kind  of  sentences  are  these  ?  Answer  the  first  ques- 
tion in  a  complete  statement ;  i.e.,  No  one  knows  where  the  rose 
gets  its  color.  Answer  the  second  question,  substituting  for 
luhom,  the  little  sick  girl.  Answer  the  third  question  ;  the 
fourth ;  the  fifth.  Answer  the  sixth,  substituting  for  what,  the 
sun.  Answer  the  seventh  question,  substituting  for  what,  the 
industry. 

Who,  whose,  lohom,  which,  what,  are  words  used  in  place  of 
nouns.  They  are,  then,  what  part  of  speech  ?  They  are  used 
in  interrogative  sentences.  They  are,  then,  what  kind  of  pro- 
nouns ? 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  one  used  in  asking 
questions. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  whose,  whom,  which, 
11 


162     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

what.  WhOj  tvhose,  whom,  represent  persons  only  ;  lohich 
represents  persons  or  things,  and  ivhat  represents  anything 
except  persons. 

Notice   the  interrogative   pronouns   in   the   following  sen- 
tences : 

8.  What  shall  I  do  to  make  this  rosebush  blossom  ? 

9.  Here  are  red  roses  and  white  roses.     Which  do  you 
prefer  ? 

10.  Who  will  carry  the  roses  to  the  little  sick  girl  ? 

11.  Whose  rose  is  this  that  is  lying  on  the  desk  ? 

12.  Whom  do  you  wish  to  see  ? 

13.  "JSTow   who   has    thought    out    all    these  things? 

Who  planned  and  made  them  all  ? 
The  One  who  counts  the  shining  stars,  and  suffers 
none  to  fall." 

Write  sentences  containing  each  of  the  interrogative  pro- 
nouns. 

II. 

Complete  the  following  sentences  by  supplying  interrogative 
pronouns : 

1.     is  at  the  door  ? 

2.     did  you  call  ? 

3.     is  this  beautiful  book  ? 

4.     is  the  book  that  you  are  reading  ? 

5.     is  your  answer  to  that  question  ? 

6.     do  you  like  the  better,  "  Master  Skylark  "  or 

"  Will  Shakespeare's  Little  Lad  "  ? 

Answer  each  of  the  above  questions.     In  the  fifth,  imagine 
some  question  and  give  an  answer  to  it. 


TEE  RELATIVE  PRONOUN.  163 

CHAPTER    XLV. 
THE  RELATIVE  PRONOUN. 

I. 

1.  He  who  knows  where  the  rose  gets  its  color,  knows 
where  the  lily  gets  its  perfume. 

2.  The  little  girl  to  whom  I  sent  the  roses  was  made 
very  happy  by  them. 

3.  The  lady  in  whose  garden  they  grew  sends  many 
flowers  to  the  sick. 

4.  The  road  which  leads  to  success  is  industry. 
6.    Choose  the  path  which  duty  points  out. 

6.     Tell  me  what  you  most  desire. 

Y.      What  you  have  done  shows  great  kindness. 

8.  The  sailors  that  we  saw  are  of  the  ship  "Golden 
Gate." 

9.  Time  that  is  lost  is  never  found. 

What  is  an  interrogative  sentence  ?  Are,  then,  the  words 
who,  whom,  whose,  which,  what,  in  these  sentences  interrogative 
pronouns  ? 

What  word  does  the  group  of  words,  who'  knows  where  the 
rose  gets  its  color,  modify  ?  Does  who  mean  the  same  per- 
son as  he?  In  the  second  sentence,  what  group  of  words 
modifies  girl?  What  word  in  that  group  means  the  same 
person  as  girl?  What  word  in  the  third  sentence  means  the 
same  person  as  whose  ?  In  the  fourth  sentence  what  group  of 
words  modifies  road?    What  word  in  that  group  means  the 


104     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

same  thing  as  road  ?  What  word  in  the  fifth  sentence  means 
the  same  thing  as  j!;fl^Zf  ?  What  word  in  the  eighth  sentence 
means  the  same  persons  as  sailors?  What  word  in  the  ninth 
means  the  same  thing  as  time  ? 

These  pronouns^,  used  in  groups  of  words  and  meaning  the 
same  person  or  thing  as  the  word  that  the  group  of  words 
modifies,  are  relative  pronouns.  They  refer  or  relate  to  the 
modified  word.  The  modified  word  is  called  the  antecedent  of 
the  relative  pronoun. 

In  the  sixth  and  seventh  sentences  we  might  use  that  which 
in  place  of  what.  What,  then,  is  both  antecedent  and  relative ; 
or  we  may  call  it  a  relative  pronoun  whose  antecedent  is  not 
expressed. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  one  that  relates  to  some  word 
which  the  group  of  words  of  which  the  jpronoun  is  a  part 
modifies. 

The  relative  pronouns  are :  who,  luhose,  whom,  which,  what, 
that,  and  as  when  it  occurs  after  such  and  same.  Who,  whose, 
whom,  refer  to  persons  only ;  what,  that,  and  as,  refer  to 
persons  or  things  ;  and  which  refers  to  things  only. 

II. 

Notice  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences : 

10.  The  boy  who  thinks  before  he  speaks  makes  few 
mistakes. 

11.  "  Once  in  an  ancient  city  whose  name  I  no  longer 

remember, 
Raised  aloft  on  a  column,  a  brazen  statue  of  Jupiter 
stood  in  the  public  square." 

12.  Ko  man  is  your  friend  who  advises  you  to  do  wrong. 


THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUN.  165 

13.  "  There  is  a  bird,  a  plain  brown  bird, 

That  dwells  in  lands  afar, 
Whose  wild,  delicious  song  is  heard 
With  evening's  first  white  stai*." 

14.  We  should  honor  men  for  what  they  are,  not  for 
what  they  have. 

15.  They  gave  to  the  travelers  such  food  as  they  had. 

16.  In  the  old  wooden  bridge  over  which  we  crossed 
were  many  swallows'  nests. 

17.  He  who  says  what  he  likes  shall  hear  what  he 
doesn't  like.  . 

CHAPTER   XLVI. 
THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUN. 

1.  Here  are  two  photographs ;  this  is  a  view  of  Niagara 
Falls,  and  that  is  a  view  of  the  Natural  Bridge  in  Virginia. 

2.  These  are  the  tiny  seeds  of  the  poppy,  and  those  are 
the  winged  seeds  of  the  maple. 

3.  In  these  are  hidden  splendor  of  buds  and  blossoms ; 
in  those  the  strength  of  a  tree  and  the  glory  of  its  leaves. 

This  in  the  first  sentence  stands  for  the  photocfraph  that  is 
here  ;  that  means  the  photograph  that  is  there.  This  and  that 
are  pronouns  that  point  out.  In  the  second  sentence  what  does 
these  mean  ?  those  ?  In  the  third  sentence  by  what  words  may 
we  replace /f/ze^e?  those?  What  do  these  pronouns  do  ?  Which 
points  to  the  nearer  object,  this  or  that?   these  or  those? 

A  demonstrative  pronoun  is  one  that  points  to  the 
object  to  which  it  relates. 


166     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  :  this,  and  its  plural,  these 
(pointing  to  something  near) ;  that,  and  its  plural,  those  (point- 
ing to  something  farther  away). 

Notice  the  demonstrative  pronouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences. To  what  does  each  point  ?  Is  it  near  or  farther 
away  ? 

4.  "These  are  my  jewels,"  said  Cornelia,  resting  her 
hands  on  the  shoulders  of  her  little  sons. 

5.  That  is  the  spider's  palace  that  lies  sparkling  with 
dewdrops. 

6.  "  For  those  that  wander  they  know  not  where 

Are  full  of  trouble  and  full  of  care." 
Y.     This  is  the  ]N^ational  Monument,  555  feet  high. 

8.  These  are  Thy  daily  gifts,  the  vital  air,  the  constant 
sun,  the  sure  foundation  of  the  earth,  the  overarching  sky. 

Note  :  Remembering  that  the  office  that  a  word  performs  in 
a  sentence  determines  what  part  of  speech  it  is,  it  is  apparent 
that  adjectives  that  do  not  denote  quality  may  be  used  as  pro- 
noiins,  thus: 

9.  One  sent  coal  to  the  poor  woman,  another  flour,  a 
third  cloth. 

10.  Several  spoke  in  praise  of  this  measure. 

11.  Many  perished  on  the  severe  journey. 

These  are  called  adjective  or  indefinite  pronouns. 

Pronouns  that  limit  a  following  noun  share  the  quality  of 
the  pronoun  with  that  of  the  adjective,  thus  : 

12.  What  books  do  vou  like  best  ? 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS  WITH  ANTECEDENTS.      167 

13.  You  may  have  what  books  are  here. 

14.  These  men  brought  provisions  for  the  poor  family. 

These  are  called  pronominal  adjectives. 

CHAPTER    XLVII. 
THE  AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS   WITH    THEIR  ANTECEDENTS. 

The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  noun  which  it 
represents. 

A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  iii  gender, 
number,  a/ad  person. 

1.  De  Soto  was  buried  in  the  waters  of  the  Mississippi, 
which  he  discovered  in  1542.  His  men  built  boats  in  which 
they  sailed  down  the  river  to  its  mouth. 

Name  each  pronoun  in  the  above  sentence ;  state  its  ante- 
cedent ;  give  its  gender,  number,  and  person,  and  the  reason. 

2.  He  that  filches  from  me  my  good  name, 

Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him 

And  makes  me  poor  indeed. 

—Shakespeare. 

Give  the  gender,  number,  and  person  of  each  pronoun  in 
the  above  quotation,  and  state  its  antecedent. 

II. 

1.  If  each  of  the  pupils  did  his  very  best,  how  happy 
the  teacher  would  be ! 

2.  Every  one  of  the  children  brought  his  little  gift  for 
the  poor. 


168     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRA3UIAR. 

When  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  includes  both  the  mascu- 
line and  feminine  gender,  the  best  usage  makes  the  pronoun 
masculine.  In  the  first  sentence  each  is  both  masculine  and 
feminine  since  the  pupils  are  boys  and  girls.  The  awkward 
form,  Ms  or  her,  and  the  plural  form,  their,  are  not  in  as  good 
usage  as  the  singular  masculine  form  his. 

Explain  carefully  the  use  of  his  in  the  second  sentence. 

3.  The  contractor  and  his  men  worked  day  and  night 
to  complete  their  task. 

4.  Carl  and  I  have  our  lessons  to  learn. 

5.  You  and  Anna  have  done  your  work  beautifully. 

When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by 
and,  it  is  of  plural  number.  If  the  antecedents  are  of  differ- 
ent persons,  the  pronoun  is  of  the  first  person  if  either  ante- 
cedent is  of  the  first  person  ;  but  otherwise  it  is  of  the  second 
person. 

Explain  carefully  the  number  and  person  of  their,  our, 
your. 

6.  l^either  the  silk  nor  the  velvet  has  lost  its  brightness. 

7.  Either  the  silk  or  the  velvet  has  lost  its  brightness. 

When  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more  antecedents,  each  of 
singular  number,  connected  by  nor  or  or,  it  is  of  singular 
number. 

8.  The  committee  is  sitting  in  its  new  chamber. 

9.  The  committee  have  gone  to  their  homes. 

When  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  a  collective  noun,  the 
pronoun  is  singular  if  its  antecedent  is  thought  of  as  a  single 
object,  and  plural  if  it  is  thought  of  as  a  collection  of  in- 
dividual objects. 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS  WITH  ANTECEDENTS.      169 

When  it  is  difficult  to  make  the  pronoun  agree  •  with  its 
antecedents  because  of  their  being  of  different  genders,  it  is 
better  to  change  the  construction  of  the  sentence  so  that  each 
noun  may  have  its  representative  pronoun. 

III. 

1.  One  of  the  books  that  are  most  valued  by  me  is  lost. 
The  one  of  my  books  that  is  most  valued  by  me  is 

lost. 

Determine  the  antecedent  and  the  number  of  that,  and 
state  why  the  verb  is  are  valued  in  the  first  sentence,  and  is 
valued  in  the  second. 

2.  The  typewriter  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  helps 
that  {has,  have)  been  invented  in  this  century. 

Select  correct  form  for  the  verb  in  the  above  sentence,  and 
give  reason  for  your  choice. 

3.  I  who  tell  you  this  saw  the  occurrence. 
He  who  tells  you  this  saw  the  occurrence. 

Why  tell  in  the  first  sentence,  and  tells  in  the  second  ? 

Explain  the  gender,  number,  and  person  of  the  pronouns  in 
the  following  sentences  : 

4.  My  brother  and  I  have  enjoyed  our  visit  to  England. 

5.  You  and  your  sister  will  find  many  beautiful  scenes 
for  your  cameras  in  your  tour  through  California. 

6.  If  every  scholar  has  his  lesson  perfectly  prepared  this 
afternoon,  we  will  walk  to  Echo  Bridge. 

7.  The  boy  and  his  companions  have  filled  their  baskets 
with  chestnuts. 


170     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Insert  proper  pronouns  in  the  blanks  in  the  following  sen- 
tences ;  or,  if  preferable,  change  the  construction  : 

8.  I^either  the  man  nor  the  woman  has  found  

ticket. 

9.  Each  in own  way  rose  and  spoke. 

10.  The  man  and  his  wife  have  brought luncheon. 

(If  the  thing  possessed  belongs  to  them  in  common,  the 
pronoun  their  may  be  used.) 

11.  If  any  boy  or  girl  finds  the  book,  will  please 

bring  it  to  the  desk. 

12.  The  flock  of  sheep  hurried  to grazing  ground. 

13.  The  flock  of  sheep  had  been  out  in  rain  and  dust. 

The  whiteness  of (fleece,  fleeces)  was  turned  to  a  dirty 

gray. 

14.  If  the  manufacturer  and  the  workman  differ  in 

opinions,  it  is  because have different  interests  in 

view. 

15.  The  pupil's  father  who  has  been  promoted  is  much 
pleased ;  but  the  little  girl's  mother  who  has  lost  her  pro- 
motion feels  very  sorry. 

A  relative  pronoun  should  not  refer  to  a  noun  or  pronoun 
in  the  possessive  case.  Change  the  construction  of  the  last 
sentence. 

Change  the  awkward  construction  of  the  following  sen- 
tence : 

16.  Mr.  Whittier's  sister's  poems,  to  whom  he  alludes  in 
"  Snow  Bound "  as  "  our  youngest  and  our  dearest,"  are 
included  in  the  volumes  of  his  complete  works. 


THE  DECLENSION  OF  PRONOUNS.  171 


CHAPTER  XLVm. 

THE  DECLENSION  OF  PRONOUNS. 

The  Personal  Pronouns. 

FIRST    PERSON.  SECOND   PERSON. 

Singular  Plural       Singular  Plural 

Nom.  I  we  you,  thou  you,  ye 

Pos.   v[iy,mine  our,  ours  your,  yours,  thy,  thine  your,  yours 

Obj.    me  US  you,  thee  you 


THIRD    PERSON. 

Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fern. 

Neu. 

M.  F.  N. 

he 

she 

it 

they 

his 

her,  hers 

its 

their,  theirs 

him 

her 

it 

them 

JV^om. 

Pos. 

Obj. 

Note:  The  forms  mine,  ours,  yours;  thine,  hers,  theirs,  are 
independent  possessives — that  is,  they  are  used  without  any 
following  noun  naming  the  thing  possessed.  They  are  used  in 
the  nominative  and  ohjective  cases  only. 

The  Comjpound  Personal  Pronouns, 

SINGULAR. 

Utp.  2d  p.         Sdp.M.     Sdp.F.   Sdp.N. 

Nom.  and  Obj.  myself     yourself     himself    herself     itself 

thyself 

PLURAL. 

\st  p.  2d  p.  3d  p. 

Nom.  and  Obj.  ourselves         yourselves  themselves 


173     THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  Interrogative  Pronoims. 
Singular  and  Plural  Singular  only 

Nom.         who         which  what 

Pos.  Avhose 

Obj,  whom     which  what 

The  Relative  Pronouns. 
The  relative  pronouns,  who^  which^  what.,  have  the  same 
forms  as  the  interrogative  pronouns ;  and  that  is  used  with- 
out change  of  form  in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases 

only. 

The  Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

The  demonstrative  pronouns,  this,  that,  these,  and  those, 
are  used  in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases  only;  this 
and  that  being  singular,  and  these  and  those  being  plural. 

The  Indefinite  Pronouns. 
The  indefinite  pronouns  are : 

Distributives :  each,  neither,  either. 

Of  number  and  quantity :   many,  some,  any,  all,  few,  both, 

one,  none,  aught,  naught. 

Compounds:  no  one,  nobody,  nothing,  some 

one,  somebody,  something, 
any  one,  anybody,  anything, 
every  one,  everybody, 
everything. 

Comparatives :  such,  other. 

Peciprocal  Pronotm  Phrases. 
one  another  each  other 

Each  other  refers  reciprocally  to  two  persons,  one  another 
to  more  than  two. 


SOME  PLANS  FOR  COMPOSITION  WORK.  173 

CHAPTER    XLIX. 
THE  PARSING  OF  A  PRONOUN. 

I. 

In  parsing  a  pronoun  we  state,  in  order  : 

I.  The  class — personal,  interrogative,  relative,  demon- 
strative, indefinite. 

II.  If  personal,  of  what  person — first,  second,  third; 
whom  it  represents ;  if  relative,  the  antecedent. 

III.  Its  person,  number,  and  gender. 

IV.  Its  case,  with  the  reason  for  it. 

n. 

Eeview  pronouns  by  parsing  those  that  are  found  in  Chapters 
XXVI.,  XXVIL,  XLIV.,  XLV.,  XLVI.,  and  XLVII.       . 

CHAPTER    L. 

SOME  PLANS  FOR  COMPOSITION  WORK. 

In  grammar  grades  all  composition  work  should  be 
thoroughly  discussed  in  the  class.  The  aim  of  the  work 
here  is  not  to  obtain  originality  of  matter,  but  clearness  and 
beauty  of  expression.  The  class  work  is  properly  to  plan 
the  composition,  and  then  to  discuss  the  thoughts  that  may 
be  written  under  each  subdivision.  The  home  work  of  the 
pupil  is  to  recall  the  plan  and  the  thoughts  that  are  to  be 
written  under  each ;  to  clothe  the  outlines  of  these  thoughts 
with  suitable  language  correctly  expressed;  to  capitalize, 
punctuate,  and  paragraph  correctly;   and  to  see  that  the 


174     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

form  of  the  composition  is  according  to  the  model,  that  its 
whole  appearance  is  neat,  and  that  it  is  folded  as  the  teacher 
may  direct.  The  criticism  should  be  by  the  teacher  to  the 
pupil  personally,  or  by  the  class  in  a  discussion  of  the  best 
ways  of  expression,  paragraphing,  etc.  The  corrected  form 
of  a  composition  should  always  be  required.  This  corrected 
form  should  be  in  the  form  of  a  newly  written  copy,  and 
not  by  interlinings  of  the  first  copy.  Written  corrections 
by  a  teacher  are  usually  disregarded  by  the  pupil. 

The  form  of  the  composition.  Paper  of  letter  size  (about 
eight  inches  wide  by  ten  inches  long)  should  be  used,  and  as 
soon  as  practicable  the  pupils  should  become  accustomed  to 
the  use  of  unruled  paper. 

The  title  should  be  written  one  and  one-half  inches  from 
the  top  of  the  page,  and  so  spaced  that  the  initial  and  final 
letters  shall  be  at  equal  distances  from  the  edges  of  the 
sheet. 

The  body  of  the  composition  should  be  begun  one  inch 
below  the  title.  A  margin  of  one  inch  should  be  left  at  the 
left  of  the  body  of  the  composition,  and  a  margin  of  one- 
half  inch  at  the  right.  The  indentions  of  the  paragraphs 
should  be  one-half  inch. 

The  pages  should  be  written  upon  in  order,  and  num- 
bered. 

The  composition  should  be  folded  evenly  and  once  only, 
lengthwise  of  the  sheet.  Placing  the  folded  sheet  with  the 
fold  at  the  right,  beginning  one  and  one-half  inches  from 
the  top,  write  the  title ;  below  that,  the  name  of  the  writer ; 
and  below  that,  the  date  when  given  to  the  teacher. 


SOME  PLANS  FOR  COMPOSITION  WORK. 


175 


TITLE. 

» 

O 

w 

525 

o 

M 

fc 

IV. 

1—1 

3 

!z; 

W 

O 

O 

o 

s 

% 

1^ 

i 

1 

9 

ll 

O 

fe 

'   tf 

o 

fo 

H 

fc 

H^l 

176     TEE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 


The  Planning  of  the  Composition.  Supposing  that  the  sub- 
ject for  the  composition  is  ^^  A  Country  Eoad,"  the  teacher 
writes  this  upon  the  board.  Then  suggestions  for  topics  are 
asked  of  the  class.  As  these  are  given,  they  are  written,  not 
under  the  subject,  but  at  one  side.  After  the  teacher  has 
drawn  from  the  class  a  sufficient  number  of  topics,  the  order 
of  their  arrangement  should  be  discussed.  There  should  be, 
also,  an  introduction  to  the  subject.  Perhaps  we  may  give 
such  an  introduction  as  this  : 

As  I  was  once  driving  with  m j  father  from  Haverhill  to 
Hampstead,  we  came  to  a  road  that  branched  off  at  the 
right.  It  looked  so  cool  and  shady,  so  quiet  and  inviting, 
that  my  father  turned  the  horse  into  it  and  we  drove  slowly 
along  it. 

Then  the  plan,  as  arranged,  may  be  like  this  : 
Introduction — Where  we  found  the  road. 


SOME  PLANS  FOR  COMPOSITION  WORK.  177 

Time  of  season  at  which  we  explored  it. 

The  trees,  shrubs,  flowering  plants,  and  weeds  that  lay 
along  it. 

The  scattered  houses  along  the  way,  and  any  interesting 
things  noticed  about  them. 

The  little  animals  seen  along  the  way ;  the  birds. 

The  sunshine  sifting  through  the  trees. 

The  end  of  the  road. 

The  little  schoolhouse  that  was  at  the  corner. 

The  delights  of  such  a  ride. 

Other  subjects  which  may  be  planned  in  the  same  way  are  . 

An  Old  Barn. 

"  The  barn  was  low  and  dim  and  old. 

Broad  on  the  floor  the  sunshine  slept. 
And  through  the  windows  and  the  doors, 

Swift  in  and  out  the  swallows  swept." 
A  Trout  Brook. 
A  City  Street,  and  its  Sights. 
The  Snowstorm. 

The  Schoolroom  Clock,  and  What  it  Sees. 
Miss  Cherry-Blossom's  Party. 

In  Mrs.  Dana's  "  Plants  and  their  Children/'  will  be  found 
a  wealth  of  material  that  may  be  used  in  compositions  on 
flowers. 

The  Stories  Told  by  the  Tiles  of  an  Old-Fashioned  Fire- 
place.    (Describe  what  they  may  have  seen.) 
Faces  that  the  Mirror  Sees. 

The  Story  of  an  Echo. 
12 


178     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER   LI. 
PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES. 

Groujps  of  words  may  he  used  to  perform  the  office  of  a 
noun^  an.  adjective^  or  an  adverh. 

When  such  a  group  of  words  does  not  contain  a  subject 
and  a  j^redicate.,  it  is  called  a  phrase. 

When  such  a  group  of  words  contains  a  subject  and  a 
predicate^  it  is  called  a  clause, 

I. 

The  Phrase  as  a  Noun. 

1.  To  help  others  is  the  secret  of  happiness. 

What  is  the  secret  of  happiness  ?  What  is  the  subject  of 
the  verb  is^  Is  this  subject  a  word  or  a  group  of  words? 
Does  this  group  of  words  contain  a  subject  and  a  predicate  ? 
What  name  do  we  apply  to  it  ?  Like  what  part  of  speech  is  it 
used  ? 

2.  The  children  wished  to  visit  the  Old  Manse  at  Con- 
cord. 

What  did  the  children  wish  ?  What  is  the  object  of  the 
verb  wished'^  Is  it  a  word  or  a  group  of  words  ?  What  name  do 
we  apply  to  it  ?    AYhy  ?    Like  what  part  of  speech  is  it  used  ? 

3.  It  was  interesting  to  see  the  scene  of  the  Concord 
fight. 

What  group  of  words  means  the  same  thing  as  it  f  How 
do  you  know  that  this  group  of  words  is  a  phrase  ?  Like  what 
part  of  speech  is  it  used  ? 


PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES.  179 

A  phrase  used  to  perform  the  office  of  a  nou7i  is  a  noun 
phrase. 

Why  may  we  say  that  each  of  the  phrases  in  the  above  sen- 
tences performs  the  office  of  a  noun  ? 

Find  the  noun  phrases  in  the  following  sentences.     Why 
do  you  think  that  each  is  a  noun  phrase  ? 

4.  To  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride. 

5.  Being  faithful  in  little  duties  makes  us  worthy  of 
great  trusts. 

6.  Hygiene  teaches  us  to  keep  the  pores  of  the  skin 
open. 

7.  To  watch  a  spider  building  his  web  is  a  lesson  in 
patience. 

8.  The  hunter  loves  roaming  the  forests  in  search  of 
game. 

9.  To  breathe  the  fragrant  air  of  the  forest  is  a  pleasure. 

II. 

Hie  Phrase  as  an  Adjeetwe, 

1.  Contentment  is  a  pearl  of  great  price. 

What  group  of  words  modifies  ^earZ^    This  phrase  performs 
the  office  of  what  part  of  speech  ? 

2.  "  All  at  once  I  saw  a  crowd, 

A  host  of  golden  daffodils." 

What  group  of  words  modifies  liostf    This  phrase  performs 
the  office  of  what  part  of  speech  ? 

3.  The  smell  of  clover  in  the  fields,  of  blooming  rye  on 
the  hills,  of  the  mid  grape  beside  the  woods,  and  of  the 


180     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

sweet  honeysuckle  and  spiraea  beside  the  house,  often  comes 
back  to  him  who  lived,  as  a  child,  in  the  country. 

What  phrases  modify  smell  f  Find  four  other  phrases  that 
are  used  as  adjectives  in  the  above  sentence,  and  tell  what 
noun  each  modifies. 

A  phrase  used  to  jperform  the  office  of  an  adjective  is  an 
adjective  phrase. 

Find  the  adjective  phrases  in  the  following  selection,  and 
tell  what  each  modifies. 

The  warm  breath  of  the  meadow  comes  up  in  your  face ; 
to  your  knees  you  are  in  a  sea  of  daisies  and  clover ;  from 
your  knees  up  you  are  in  a  sea  of  solar  light  and  warmth. 
ISTow  you  are  prostrate  like  a  swimmer,  or  like  a  surf -bather, 
reaching  for  pebbles  or  shells ;  then  like  a  devotee  before  a 
shrine,  or  naming  his  beads,  your  rosary  strung  with  luscious 
berries. 

—From  "Picking  Wild  Strawberries,"  by  John  Burroughs. 

III. 
The  Phrase  as  an  Adverb. 

1.  "  The  mistletoe  hung  in  the  castle  hall, 

2.  The  holly  branch  shone  on  the  old  oak  wall." 

What  group  of  words  tells  where  the  mistletoe  hung  ?  where 
the  holly  branch  shone  ?  What  does  each  of  these  groups  of 
words  modify  ?  These  phrases  are  used  as  what  part  of  speech  ? 

3.  The  trees  are  heavy  with  leaves,  and  the  gardens  full 
of  blossoms.  The  whole  atmosphere  is  laden  with  perfumed 
sunshine. 


PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES.  181 

What  group  of  words  modifies  the  adjective  heavy?  full? 
the  verb  is  laden  f  These  phrases  are  used  as  what  part  of 
speech  ? 

A  phrase  used  to  perform,  the  office  of  a/n  adverh  is  am, 
adverbial  phrase. 

Find  the  adverbial  phrases  in  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences. Why  do  you  think  each  an  adverbial  phrase  ?  What 
does  each  modify  ? 

4.  Keep  your* friends  by  fidelity,  conquer  your  foes  by 
courtesy,  win  all  by  goodness  and  kindness. 

5.  The  martins  came  promptly  on  the  first  day  of  April, 
and  took  up  their  quarters  in  the  boxes  that  we  had  pre- 
pared for  them ;  and  soon  all  sorts  of  birds  arrived  by 
thousands,  and  made  the  island  alive  with  soimd  and 
motion. 

6.  "  Can  you  put  the  lily  back  on  the  stem. 

And  cause  it  to  live  and  grow  ? 
Can  you  mend  the  butterfly's  broken  wing 
That  you  crushed  by  a  hasty  blow  ?  " 

lY. 

Find  the  phrases  in  the  following  sentences ;  determine  of 
what  kind  each  is ;  state  what  word  each  adjective  phrase  or 
adverbial  phrase  modifies. 

1.  It  is  not  right  to  say  an  unkind  thing. 

2.  To  observe  the  habits  of  animals  or  of  birds  is  a 
most  delightful  study. 

3.  September  is  the  month  of  tall  weeds.  They  give  a 
rich  color  to  the  roadsides.     Along  the  country  ways  there 


18.2     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

grows  an  abundance  of  golden-rod  and  of  blue  and  purple 
asters.  Here  and  there,  like  flame,  appear  the  leaves  of  the 
crimson  sumac ;  while  behind  the  fence,  or  crowning  the 
rocks,  appears  the  dark  green  of  the  cedars  mth  a  still  fire 
of  woodbine  at  its  heart. 

4.  The  fish  all  run  down  stream  in  the  fall,  except  the 
trout.  By  mid-October  the  toads  and  the  turtles  have 
buried  themselves  in  the  earth.  The  black  bear  mil  go 
into  winter  quarters  when  the  snow  comes.  He  does  not 
like  the  looks  of  his  big  tracks  in  the  snow.  They  tell 
too  plainly  about  his  comings  and  goings. 

5.  "  Towards  the  sun  his  hands  were  lifted, 

Both  the  palms  outspread  against  it, 
And  between  the  parted  fingers 
Fell  the  sunshine  on  his  features, 
Flecked  with  light  his  naked  shoulders, 
As  it  falls  and  flecks  an  oak  tree 
Through  the  rifted  leaves  and  branches." 


Write  sentences  containing  the  following  phrases  : 

1.  To  speak  the  truth — 

2.  Sharing  our  pleasures  with  our  friends — 

3.  Washing  the  dishes — 

4.  Playing  football — 

5.  To  travel  in  foreign  countries — 

6.  — to  see  the  bright  stars  at  night. 
Y.                            — to  learn  the  habits  of  bees. 


PHRASES  AND  CLAUSES.  183 

8.  — to  avoid  bad  company. 

9.  — to  be  courteous  to  everyone. 

10.  — by  saving  little  sums  of  money. 

11.  Of  the  sun  ;  of  the  flowers ;  of  the  horse ;  of  a  kind 
word ;  in  the  city ;  in  the  country ;  in  Central  Africa ;  in 
the  school ;  protecting  his  little  birds ;  helping  the  smaller 
children  ;  guiding  his  boat ;  finding  a  crow's  nest ;  sleeping 
on  a  bed  of  fir  balsam ;  of  clear,  cool  water ;  of  dry  fire- 
wood ;  into  the  river ;  between  the  two  tents ;  above  the 
dark  woods ;  through  the  thick  branches ;  along  the  deep, 
dark  stream ;  on  the  ice. 

Write  a  composition  on  A  Camp  in  the  Woods,  and  under- 
line all  the  phrases  that  you  use. 

The  plan  for  the  composition  may  contain  the  following 
hints :  Keason  for  camping  out ;  place  selected  for  the 
camp ;  pitching  the  tent ;  spreading  the  boughs  for  the  bed ; 
cooking ;  the  sports  of  the  day ;  the  occupations  of  the 
evening ;  strange  sounds  and  sights  in  the  forests. 

Note  :  Phrases  are  sometimes  named  from  the  word  which 
introduces  them,  thus,  prepositional  phrase,  participial  phrase, 
etc.  Since  the  service  that  a  word  or  group  of  words  performs 
determines  the  part  of  speech  under  which  it  is  classed,  it  is 
better  to  hold  to  this  one  principle  (of  service)  in  naming.  We 
may,  however,  say  that  the  phrase  is  introduced  by  a  prepo- 
sition, a  participle,  etc.,  thus  :  Tlie  child  was  cradled  in  a 
manger,  "/w  a  matiger  "  is  an  adverbial  phrase  of  place,  intro- 
duced by  the  preposition  in,  and  modifying  the  verb  ^^  was 
cradled" 


184     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAIIMAR. 


CHAPTER    LII. 
CLAUSES. 

I. 

The  Clause  as  a  Nov/n. 

1.  That  idleness  is  the  mother  of  mischief  has  been 
proved  by  many  examples. 

Wliat  has  been  proved  ?  Is  the  subject  of  lias  been  proved 
a  word  or  group  of  words  ?  Does  this  group  of  words  contain 
a  subject  and  a  predicate  ?  What  name  may  we  apply  to  it  ? 
Like  what  part  of  speech  is  it  used  ? 

2.  Philip  E'olan  said  that  he  would  go  to  sleep. 

What  did  Philip  Nolan  say  ?  What  is  the  object  of  saidf 
Is  it  a  word  or  group  of  words  ?  Does  it  contain  a  subject  and 
predicate  ?    Like  what  part  of  speech  is  it  used  ? 

A  clause  used  to  perform  the  office  of  a  noun  is  a  noun 
clause. 

Find  the  noun  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  : 

3.  When  misfortunes  come  is  the  time  to  test  friend- 
ships. 

4.  I  saw  that  the  little  boat  was  in  danger;  that  it 
could  escape  the  rocks  seemed  impossible ;  that  it  would  go 
over  the  falls  seemed  unavoidable. 

5.  "  Tommy  thought  there  was  no  one  to  see  him, 

I^one  in  the  road,  or  the  fields,  or  the  wood  ; 

But  all  the  willows,  and  all  the  grasses, 

And  clouds  and  daisies  could  see  where  he  stood." 


CLAUSES.  185 


11. 

The  Clause  as  an  Adjective. 

1.  There  cannot  be  a  man  who  loves  the  old  flag 
as  I  do. 

What  group  of  words  modifies  man  f  This  clause  performs 
the  office  of  what  part  of  speech  ? 

2.  He  read  all  the  foreign  papers  that  came  into  the 
ship. 

What  word  does  the  clause  that  came  into  the  ship  modify  ? 
It  performs  the  office  of  what  part  of  speech  ? 

3.  The  barn  swallows  Avho  build  in  barns  or  covered 
bridges  usually  line  their  nests  with  soft  feathers. 

What  is  the  clause  in  this  sentence  ?  What  does  it  modify  ? 
Like  what  part  of  speech  is  it  used  ? 

A  clause  used  to  jperforrrb  the  office  of  an  adjective  is  an 
adjective  clause. 

Find  the  adjective  clauses  in  the  following  sentences ;  tell 
what  each  modifies ;  give  a  reason  for  calling  it  a  clause  ;  for 
calling  it  an  adjective  clause  : 

4.  I  would  not  honor  on  my  list  of  friends  the  man  who 
needlessly  sets  foot  upon  a  worm. 

5.  Weeds  that  give  food  to  neither  bee  nor  beast  fur- 
nish seeds  to  the  fall  and  winter  birds. 

^        6.     He  who  walks  in  other  people's  tracks  makes  no  dis- 
coveries. 

7.     "  Dare  to  be  true !   Nothing  can  need  a  lie  ; 

A  fault  which  needs  it  most  grows  two  thereby." 


186     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  QRAM3IAR. 

8.  "  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 

All  things  both  great  and  small ; 
For  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us, 
He  made  and  loveth  all." 

9.  "  All  the  buttercups  standing  together, 

All  the  wild  roses  that  stood  by  the  way. 
Laughed  and  rustled,  '  See  Tommy,  see  Tommy  ! — 
Tommy  played  truant  to-day.'  " 

III. 

The  Clause  as  an  Adverb, 

1.  When  the  Indian  paddled  his  canoe  on  the  Merri- 
mack, its  waters  turned  no  mill  wheels. 

What  clause  denotes  time  in  this  sentence  ?  the  time  of 
what  verb  ?  What  verb  does  the  time-clause  modify  ?  It  per- 
forms the  office  of  what  part  of  speech  ? 

2.  Where  the  great  cities  of  Manchester,  Lawrence,  and 
Lowell  are  now,  there  was  only  an  unbroken  solitude. 

What  clause  denotes  place  in  this  sentence  ?  The  clause 
modifies  the  thought  of  what  statement  ? 

3.  While  the  winter  weather  is  most  severe  the  blanket 
of  snow  protects  the  roots  of  the  little  plants. 

4.  Before  the  snow  had  ceased  to  fall  the  sun  broke 
through  the  western  clouds. 

What  clause  in  each  of  the  above  sentences  is  an  adverbial 
clause  ?    Why  may  we  call  it  an  adverhial  clause  ? 

5.  If  any  other  man  was  ill,  Philip  Nolan  was  the 
kindest  nurse  in  the  world. 


CLAUSES.  187 


6.  Then  if  anybody  was  sick  or  died,  he  was  always 
ready  to  read  prayers. 

7.  If  you  do  not  know  the  story  of  Philip  Nolan,  you 
will  enjoy  reading  it  in  "  The  Man  Without  a  Country." 

In  these  three  sentences  the  modifying  clauses  are  condi- 
tional clauses.  They  state  under  what  conditions  the  principal 
statements  are  true.     They  are  adverbial  clauses. 

A  clause  used  to  jperform  the  office  of  an  adverb  is  an 
adverbial  clause. 

Find  the  adverbial  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  ;  state 
why  they  are  adverbial  clauses,  and  what  each  modifies  : 

8.  In  the  Paradise  of  Children,  whenever  a  child  wanted 
his  dinner  he  found  it  growing  on  a  tree,  and,  if  he  looked 
at  the  tree  in  the  morning,  he  could  see  the  expanding  blos- 
som of  that  night's  supper. 

9.  While  this  old  world  was  in  its  infancy,  there  lived 
two  children  named  Epimetheus  and  Pandora. 

10.  Once  on  a  time,  when  Pandora  entered  the  cottage 
where  Epimetheus  lived,  she  saw  a  great  box. 

11.  Although  she  was  warned  not  to  open  the  box,  she 
did  open  it. 

12.  As  she  opened  it,  a  great  cloud  of  little  beings 
rushed  out. 

13.  When  they  had  come  out,  they  began  to  annoy  the 
whole  world,  for  the  name  of  each  one  was  Trouble. 

14.  "  When  to  the  flowers — so  beautiful — 

The  Father  gave  a  name, 
Back  came  a  little  blue-eyed  one 
(All  timidly  it  came) 


188     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

And  standing  at  its  Father's  feet, 

And  gazing  in  His  face, 
It  said  in  low  and  trembling  tones. 

With  sweet  and  gentle  grace  : 
'  Dear  God,  the  name  Thou  gavest  me 

Alas  !  I  have  forgot.' 
Then  kindly  looked  the  Father  down, 

And  said,  '  Forget-me-not.' " 

lY. 

What  are  the  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  ?  Of  what 
kind  is  each,  and  what  do  the  adjective  and  adverbial  clauses 
modify  ? 

1.  How  Hiawatha  built  his  light  canoe  is  told  in  the 
chapter  entitled,  "  Hiawatha's  Sailing." 

2.  The  Birch  Tree  said, "  Take  my  cloak,  O  Hiawatha  ! " 
and  the  Cedar  said,  "  Take  my  boughs,  O  Hiawatha  !  "  and 
the  Fir  Tree  said,  "  Take  my  balm,  O  Hiawatha  !  " 

3.  He  who  swims  against  the  tide  needs  strong  arms. 

4.  He  who  reigns  within  himself,  and  rules  passions, 
desires,  and  fears,  is  more  than  a  king. 

5.  When  the  Breton  sailor  puts  to  sea,  his  prayer  is, 
'^  Keep  me,  my  God,  for  my  boat  is  so  small  and  Thy  ocean 
is  so  wide  !  " 

6.  But,  oh,  how  silently  yet  how  truly  does  the  faint 
color  that  is  seen  on  the  willows  across  the  snow,  speak  to 
me  of  softer  skies  and  golden  weather ! 

7.  A  weed  seems  never  to  lose  its  courage ;  when  it 
cannot  have  the  best  ground,  it  will  accept  the  poorest. 


CLA  USES.  189 


8.  He  who  speaks  evil  of  another  to  you,  will  speak  evil 
of  you  to  another. 

Y. 

An  adjective  clause  introduced  hy  a  relative  jyronoun  is 
called  a  relative  clause. 

Find  the  relative  clauses,  their  verbs,  subjects  nominative, 
relative  pronouns  and  antecedents,  in  the  sentences  preceding 
and  in  the  paragraph  that  follows  : 

In  his  own  room  David  had  gathered  the  treasures  which 
he  loved  best ;  the  rod  that  had  been  his  companion  in 
many  a  joyful  fishing  excursion,  the  rifle  which  he  had 
never  used  to  destroy  life  since  he  saw  the  reproachful  eyes 
of  the  wounded  deer,  the  medal  which  he  had  won  "by 
honorable  deportment  and  faithful  effort,"  in  the  district 
school.  Above  the  cap  that  his  father  wore  in  the  war  he 
had  hung  a  little  silken  flag  like  that  for  which  his  father 
had  died.  Over  his  desk  hung  a  picture  of  his  mother, 
beneath  which  he  had  placed  a  vase  that  was  seldom  with- 
out flowers,  and  lying  on  the  desk,  worn  with  use,  was  the 
Bible  which  was  her  last  gift  to  him.  The  books  here  were 
those  which  were  like  old  friends :  "  The  Swiss  Family  Kob- 
inson,"  "A  Child's  History  of  England,"  "  The  Franconia 
Stories,"  "  Henry  Esmond,"  and  "  Lorna  Doone." 

Insert  relative  clauses  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  The  snow,  which ,  was  unbroken  by  any 

track  when  morning  came.         '^^ 

2.  The  men,  whose ,  broke  paths  through  the 

drifted  roads. 

3.  The  little  birds,  whom ,  sought  food  in  the 


190     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR, 

sheaf  of  wheat  the  kind  farmer  had  put  outside  his 

door  for  them. 

4.  The  well-curb,  over ,  looked  like  a  Chinese 

roof. 

5.  A  huge  drift, ,  was  tunneled  through. 

6.  The  sun, not  seen  three  days,  shone  upon 

a  world  of  white. 

When  a  sentence  is  composed  of  two  or  more  clauses^  each 
independent  of  any  other,  the  clauses  are  said  to  be  coordinate. 

When  a  clause  bears  the  relation  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or 
an  adverb  to  any  other  clause,  it  is  said  to  be  a  subordinate 
clause.  The  clause  to  which  it  bears  such  relation  is  said  to  be 
principal  to  it. 

Classify  as  principal  or  subordinate  the  clauses  in  the  illus- 
trative sentences  in  this  chapter. 

CHAPTER    LIII. 

I. 

THE  PARSING  OF  A  PREPOSITION. 

In  parsing  a  preposition,  state  : 
I.     What  kind  of  a  phrase  it  introduces. 
II.     To  what  word  it  shows  the  relation  of  its  object. 
Parse  the  prepositions  in  Chapter  XXXVI ;  IV,  V. 

II. 
THE  PARSING  §F  A  CONJUNCTION. 
In  parsing  a  conjunction,  state  : 

I.  What  kind  of  a  conjunction  it  is — coordinate,  if  it 
connect  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  that  are  coordinate  (inde- 


A  SELECTION  FOE  STUDY  AND  MEMORY.  191 

pendent  of  each  other) ;  subordinate,  if  it  connect  a  subor- 
dinate clause  to  a  principal  clause. 

II.  If  coordinate,  what  elements  it  connects ;  if  subor- 
dinate, what  kind  of  a  clause  (noun,  adjective,  or  adverbial) 
it  introduces,  and  to  what  it  joins  it. 

Conjunctions  occurring  in  pairs — both,  and  ;  not  only,  hut ; 
either,  or;  thoiiyh,  yet — have  the  joining  force  of  a  single 
word,  and  should  be  parsed  together. 

Parse  the  conjunctions  in  Chapter  XLI. 

III. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections,  having  no  grammatical  relations  to  any  other 
words,  are  simply  named  as  interjections,  and  classified  by  the 
feeling  which  each  expresses. 

CHAPTER    LIV. 

A  SELECTION  FOR  STUDY  AND  MEMORY. 

In  preparation  for  the  study  of  the  selection  given  beyond 
— '^  The  Chambered  Nautilus  '* — the  class  may  be  shown,  if 
possible,  the  shells  of  the  paper  nautilus  and  the  pearly 
nautilus,  or  pictures  of  these  mollusks.  Then  they  should 
learn  the  facts  given  in  the  following  introduction.  Thus  they 
may  be  led  to  see  how  the  poet's  fancies  build  upon  simple 
facts  :  that,  like  the  painter  or  the  sculptor,  he  fashions  com- 
mon material  into  something  of  wonderful  beauty. 

In  the  Southern  seas,  and  especially  in  the  Mediterranean 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Messina,  there  is  found  a  kind  of 
floating  polyp  or  cuttle  fish  vnih.  eight  arms,  two  of  which 


192     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

are  expanded  into  broad  webs  which  once  were  thought  to 
be  sails  for  the  little  mollusk — sails  which  it  spread  to  the 
breeze  that  it  might  be  wafted  over  the  "  unshadowed  seas." 
So  the  poet  calls  this  little  argonaut — 

"  The  venturous  bark  that  flings 
On  the  sweet  summer  wind  its  purpled  wings 
In  gulfs  enchanted." 

These  webbed  arms  are  not  sails;  they  are  the  hands 
with  which  the  little  creature  grasps  his  boat,  or  shell,  when 
swimming.  They  fashion,  too,  the  boat,  for  they  give  the 
secretion  of  which  it  is  made ;  they  mend  and  repair  it  Avhen 
any  break  comes  in  its  delicate  texture,  soldering  like  skil- 
ful workmen  into  its  crevices  any  chance  bit  of  shell  that 
comes  in  their  way.  The  boat  in  which  the  nautilus  rides 
is  very  thin,  like  paper ;  it  is  transparent,  and  so  flexible 
that  when  wet  its  sides  may  be  pressed  together.  The  little 
occupant  of  the  boat  may  leave  it  at  his  pleasure,  since  he  is 
attached  to  it  only  by  the  grasp  of  the  two  arms,  but  some- 
times in  fright — ^for  the  paper  nautilus  is  very  timid — he 
loses  his  boat,  and  dies  because  bereft  of  it. 

There  is  another  nautilus,  the  pearly  nautilus,  whose 
shell  is  like  pearl,  beautiful  in  texture  and  color.  Unlike 
the  paper  nautilus,  the  pearly  nautilus  is  attached  to  his 
shell.  This  shell  is  chambered,  and  in  the  outer  chamber 
lives  its  tenant.  These  chambers  are  air  chambers,  and  the 
nautilus  has  such  control  over  them  that  the  shell  swims  or 
sinks  at  his  pleasure.  He  lives  in  deep  water,  but  sometimes 
floats  along  the  shore,  his  tentacles  outspread,  but  not  re- 
sembling the  purple  sails  of  the  paper  nautilus. 


A   SELECTION  FOR  STUDY  AND  MEMORY.  193 

After  reading  the  poem  a  dictionary  study  should  be  made  of 
unfamiliar  words.  Then  every  line  of  the  poem  should  be  talked 
over  with  the  pupils,  every  possible  picture  should  be  presented, 
and  the  choice  of  words  and  the  beauty  of  expression  brought 
to  their  consciousness.  They  must  see  the  change  that  comes 
in  the  fourth  stanza,  and  express  in  their  own  prose  the  mean- 
ing of  the  last  two  stanzas.  Then  they  should  recall  by  mem- 
ory the  sequence  of  pictures  and  ideas.  After  this  careful  and 
interesting  work,  the  memorizing  of  the  poem  requires  but 
little  effort. 

The  Chambered  IN^autilus. 

This  is  the  ship  of  pearl  which  poets  feign 

Sails  the  unshadowed  main, — 

The  venturous  bark  that  flings 
On  the  sweet  summer  wind  its  purpled  mngs 
In  gulfs  enchanted,  where  the  Siren  sings. 

And  coral  reefs  lie  bare, 
"Where  the  cold  sea-maids  rise  to  sun  their  streaming  hair. 

Its  webs  of  living  gauze  no  more  unfurl ; 

Wrecked  is  the  ship  of  pearl ! 

And  every  chambered  cell, 
Where  its  dim  dreaming  life  Avas  wont  to  dwell. 
As  the  frail  tenant  shaped  his  growing  shell. 

Before  thee  lies  revealed, — 
Its  irised  ceiling  rent,  its  sunless  crypt  unsealed ! 

Year  after  year  beheld  the  silent  toil 

That  spread  his  lustrous  coil ; 

Still,  as  the  spiral  grew, 
He  left  the  past  year's  dwelling  for  the  new, 
13 


194     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

Stole  with  soft  step  its  shining  archway  through, 

Built  up  its  idle  door, 
Stretched  in  his  last-found  home,  and  knew  the  old  no  more. 

Thanks  for  the  heavenly  message  brought  by  thee. 

Child  of  the  wandering  sea 

Cast  from  her  lap,  forlorn  ! 
From  thy  dead  lips  a  clearer  note  is  born 
Than  ever  Triton  blew  from  wreathed  horn  ! 

"While  on  mine  ear  it  rings. 
Through  the  deep  caves  of  thought  I  hear  a  voice  that  sings : — 

Buil'd  thee  more  stately  mansions,  O  my  soul, 

As  the  swift  seasons  roll ! 

Leave  thy  low- vaulted  past ! 
Let  each  new  temple,  nobler  than  the  last, 
Shut  thee  from  heaven  with  a  dome  more  vast. 

Till  thou  at  length  art  free. 
Leaving  thine  outgrown  shell  by  life's  unresting  sea  ! 

—Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

[Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  an  American  poet,  born  in  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusotts,  August  29, 1809 ;  died  October  7, 1894.] 

CHAPTER    LV. 
THE  PREDICATE  AND   THE  AP POSITIVE  USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

I. 

1.  The  garden  is  not  pretty  now. 

2,  The  roses  have  been  beautiful,  the  lilies  have  been 
exquisite,  the  violets  have  been  abundant ;  but  a  severe 
storm  has  broken  the  stalks  and  shattered  the  flowers. 


PREDICATE  AND  APPOSITIVE  USE  OF  ADJECTIVES.     195 

3.  The  children  were  tired  and  silent,  but  after  they 
had  rested  they  became  \erj  merry  and  sportive. 

What  is  the  predicate  in  the  first  sentence  ?  What  adjective 
forms  a  part  of  it  ?  What  noun  does  that  adjective  modify  ? 
What  is  the  relation  of  that  noun  to  the  predicate  verb  ? 

Analyze  the  first  three  predicates  of  the  second  sentence  in 
the  same  way. 

What  is  the  first  predicate  in  the  third  sentence  ?  the  last 
predicate  in  that  sentence  ?  Analyze  each  to  show  the  relations 
of  the  adjectives  to  the  predicate  verb  and  to  the  subject  nomi- 
native. 

An  adjective  forming  apart  of  the  predicate  of  a  sentence 
and  modifying  the  subject  nominative  of  the  predicate  verb 
is  a  predicate  adjective. 

Such  adjectives  are  used  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the 
verbs  isj  become,  appear,  look,  seem,  sound,  taste,  feel,  and  some 
others. 

Find  the  predicate  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences, 
and  state  what  noun  each  modifies  : 

4.  At  the  approach  of  day  the  birds  were  very  songful, 
but  as  the  sun  rose  higher  they  became  more  quiet. 

5.  The  earth  appeared  freshened  by  the  rain  ;  the  grass 
looked  greener,  the  air  seemed  clearer,  and  the  sound  of  the 
bells,  heard  across  the  blossoming  meadows,  was  more 
musical. 

6.  The  food  looked  coarse  but  it  tasted  delicious,  and 
after  eating  heartily  of  the  supper  that  the  neat  housewife 
had  kindly  prepared  for  us,  Ave  felt  greatly  refreshed. 


196     TEE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAM3IAR. 

A  predicate  adjective  may  follow  an  infinitive  to  complete 
the  statement  about  the  suhject  of  the  infmitive. 

Find  the  predicate  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
state  the  case  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  each  modifies  : 

7.  America  expects  every  son  of  hers  to  be  brave  and 
loyal. 

8.  I  wish  you  all  to  be  happy,  to  become  wise,  to  appear 
courteous,  and  to  seem  gentle. 

II. 

1.  The  man,  tired  and  hungry,  was  grateful  for  the 
food  and  rest  that  we  gave  him. 

2.  I  love  the  house,  so  homelike  yet  so  humble ;  the  gar" 
den,  so  fragrant  with  flowers  and  with  memories ;  the  dear, 
familiar  river,  still  sparkling  as  in  the  days  of  my  happy 
childhood. 

3.  And  if  my  feet  have  trodden  streets  prouder  than 
the  old  country  road,  and  I  have  lived  in  palaces  more  mag- 
nificent than  I  could  imagine  in  those  older  days,  yet  if  I 
could  find  the  old  content  and  the  dear,  familiar  faces  there, 
I  would  gladly  live  once  more  in  the  little  brown  cottage, 
and  wander  no  farther  than  along  the  grass-grown  road  and 
the  field  paths  that  were  its  neighbors. 

Adjectives  sometimes  stand  in  a  relation  that  is  less  close 
than  that  of  an  attributive  adjective.  They  are  placed  after 
the  nouns  which  they  modify,  are  separated  from  them  by  a 
comma,  and  are  equivalent  to  a  qualifying  clause  or  introduc- 
tory to  one.     This  is  the  appositive  use  of  adjectives. 

In  the  three  sentences  that  are  given  above,  find  the  adjec- 


THE  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES.  197 

tives  that  are  used  appositively,  state  what  each  modifies,  and 
change  the  group  of  words  in  which  each  is  found  into  a  quali- 
fying clause.  What  kind  of  a  clause  other  than  qualifying  is 
each  ? 


CHAPTER   LVI. 
THE  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

I. 

1.  Blanca  Peak  is  14,463  feet  high;  Mont  Blanc  is 
15,781  feet  high  ;  Mt.  Everest  is  29,002  feet  high. 

2.  Blanca  Peak  is  a  high  mountain. 

3.  Mont  Blanc  is  higher  than  Blanca  Peak. 

4.  Mt.  Everest  is  the  highest  mountain  in  the  world. 

In  this  set  of  sentences  we  have  made  a  statement  in  regard 
to  Blanca  Peak — that  it  is  a  high  mountain. 

We  compare  two  mountains,  Mont  Blanc  and  Blanca  Peak, 
and  state  that  Mont  Blanc  is  the  higher. 

We  compare  Mt.  Everest  with  all  the  mountains  of  the 
world,  and  state  that  it  is  the  highest. 

5.  Philadelphia  is  a  large  city. 

6.  Chicago  is  a  larger  city  than  Philadelphia. 
Y.     New  York  is  the  largest  city  of  the  three. 

In  this  set  of  sentences  we  state  that  Philadelphia  is  a  large 
city. 

We  compare  two  cities,  and  state  that  Chicago  is  the  larger. 

We  compare  three  cities.  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Phila- 
delphia, and  state  that  New  York  is  the  largest  of  the  tliree. 

We  have  changed  the  forms  of  the  adjectives  high  and  large 


198     THE   ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

to  make  a  comparison  between  two  objects,  and  to  make  a  com- 
parison of  one  object  with  more  than  one  other  object. 

The  form  of  the  adjective  that  we  use  in  a  simple  state- 
ment is  the  positive  form  ;  in  a  comparison  of  one  object  with 
one  other,  the  comparative  form  ;  and  in  a  comparison  of  one 
object  with  more  than  one  other,  the  superlative  form. 

The  comparison  of  an  adjective  is  a  change  of  its  expression 
to  indicate  a  higher,  or  the  highest,  degree  of  what  is  denoted 
by  the  adjective. 

An  adjective  is  of  the  positive  degree  when  its  form 
indicates  no  comparison. 

An  adjective  is  of  the  comparative  degree  when  it 
indicates  comparison  of  one  object  with  one  other. 

An  adjective  is  of  the  superlative  degree  when  it 
indicates  comparison  of  one  object  with  more  than  one  other. 

8.  Kalph  is  a  tall  boy ;  Harry  is  taller  than  Kalph ; 
Fred  is  the  tallest  of  the  three. 

9.  Fred  is  careful ;  Howard  is  more  careful  than  Fred ; 
Arthur  is  the  most  careful  of  all  the  boys. 

Of  what  degree  of  comparison  is  each  adjective  in  the  pre- 
ceding sentences  ? 

Of  the  following  adjectives  which  are  positive,  which  of  the 
comparative  degree,  and  which  of  the  superlative  degree  of 
comparison  ?  Which  indicate  no  comparison,  which  a  com- 
parison between  two  objects,  and  which  a  comparison  between 
more  than  two  objects  ? 

happy  more  thoughtful  richer 

longest  most  industrious  colder 


THE  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES.  199 


cold 

coldest 

strongest 

strong 

stronger 

friendly 

most  friendly 

more  beautiful 

sweet 

sweetest 

pleasanter 

loveliest 

Put  each  form  in  a  good  sentence. 

Supply  adjectives  in  these  blanks  ;  state  of  what  degree  each 
is,  and  why  : 

10.  To-day  is than  yesterday. 

11.  The  sun  is than  the  moon. 

12.  The  dog  is  the of  all  animals. 

13.  The  Spring  wore  her dress. 

14.  The  Mississippi  is  - —  than  the  Amazon. 

15.  London  is than  Paris. 

16.  The  days  in  winter  are than  the  days  in  sum- 
mer, but  the  nights  are . 

11.     February  is  the month  of  the  year. 

18.    The flowers  are  all  gone. 

II. 

Regularly  the  comparative  form  of  adjectives  of  one  syllable 
and  of  some  of  two  syllables  is  made  by  adding  the  syllable  -er 
to  the  positive  form  ;  the  comparative  form  of  most  adjectives 
of  two  syllables  and  of  all  adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables 
is  made  by  prefixing  the  word  more ;  the  superlative  form  of 
adjectives  of  one  syllable  and  of  some  of  two  is  made  by  adding 
the  syllable  -est  to  the  positive  form  ;  the  superlative  form  of 
most  adjectives  of  two  syllables  and  of  all  adjectives  of  more 
than  two  syllables  is  made  by  prefixing  the  word  most  to  the 
positive  form. 


300     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 


Write  the  regular  comparison  of  the  following  adjectives, 
and  use  each  form  correctly  in  a  sentence  : 


brave 

beautiful 

wise 

lovely 

easy 

mischievous 

strong 

polite 

kind 

thoughtful 

rapid 

swift 

slow 

lazy 

happy 

Note  :  Final  y,  when  not  preceded  by  a  vowel,  is  changed 
to  i  before  adding  -er  or  -est. 

The  following  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly.     Learn 
carefully  their  comparison: 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

good 

better 

best 

bad,  ill,  or  evil,   worse 

worst 

little 

less 

least 

rtiuch 

more 

most 

many 

more 

most 

late 

later   | 
latter  ) 

latest  ) 
last     i 

far 

farther 

farthest 

old 

"  older  1 
elder  f 

oldest  1  ^ 
eldest  ) 

further 

furthest 

fore 

former             * 

foremost  ] 
first          i 

hind 

hinder 

hindmost 

*  Older  and  oldest  apply  to  persons  or  things ;  elder  and  eldest  to  per- 
sons only. 


THE  COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES.  201 


Positive  Co7)iparativ6  S^iperlative 

inner  inmost        | 

innermost  ) 
nether  nethermost 

upper  upmost        ) 

uppermost  ) 
nigh  nigher  nighest  | 

next       ) 
outer  outmost     | 

outermost  ) 
top  topmost 

utmost      ) 


uttermost 

Study  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences.  What 
kind  of  an  adjective  is  each  ?  What  does  it  modify  ?  Of  what 
degree  of  comparison  is  it  ?    How  is  it  compared  ? 

The  patient  humble  bee  glides  over  the  golden  butter- 
cups, humming  to  himself  as  he  goes,  so  happy  is  he. 
Down  to  the  flowering  nettle  in  the  mossy-sided  ditch,  up 
into  the  tall  elm,  along  the  banks  of  the  purling  brooks,  far 
inside  the  deepest  woods,  he  wanders.  His  nest  is  under  the 
rough  grasses.  The  great  oak  may  tremble  in  the  storm,  the 
heavy  rain  deluge  the  little  flowers,  the  thick  grasses  be 
bowed,  and  the  fierce  blasts  may  tear  the  green  oak  leaves, 
but  his  home  remains  safe.  The  storm  passes;  the  air  is 
sweeter  and  richer  for  the  rain,  like  verse  with  a  rh3nne ; 
there  will  be  more  honey  in  the  flowers.  Humble  the  bee  is, 
but  wild — always  wild,  and  humming  to  his  flowers. 

— Arranged  from  "  The  Pageant  of  Summer," 

by  Richard  Jeffries. 


202     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR, 

CHAPTER    LVII. 
THE    PARSING    OF   AN    ADJECTIVE. 

In  parsing  an  adjective  we  state,  in  order  : 

I.  The  class  to  which  it  belongs — descriptive,  desig- 
nating, or  limiting. 

II.     Its  use — attributive,  predicate,  or  appositive. 

III.  Its  degree  of  comparison — positive,  comparative,  or 
superlative. 

lY.     The  noun  or  pronoun  which  it  modifies. 

Exercises  in  parsing  adjectives  may  be  given  upon  the  selec- 
tions in  Chapters  XXI.,  LY.,  and  LYI. 

CHAPTER    LVIIl. 
THE   ADVERB. 

{A  review  and  expaiisiori  of  Chapter  XXV.) 

1.  Kemember  now  thy  Creator. 

2.  "  Often  I  think  of  the  beautiful  town 

That  is  seated  by  the  sea." 

3.  Always  the  sun  is  shining  somewhere. 

4.  "Up  and  down  the  village  street 

The  mimic  army  passed." 

5.  Many  men  have  suffered  severely  in  defence  of  their 
country. 

6.  "  Therefore  be  at  peace  henceforward. 

And  as  brothers  live  together." 

7.  Hiawatha  journeyed  westward. 


THE  ADVERB.  203 


8.     When  Hiawatha  built  his  canoe,  he 
"  Closely  sewed  the  bark  together, 
Bound  it  closely  to  the  framework." 

In  the  above  sentences  certain  words  limit  or  modify  the 
meanings  of  the  verbs.  Now  limits  the  time  of  the  verb 
remerriber  ;  often  gives  the  idea  of  repetition  to  the  verb  think  ; 
always  of  continuance  to  the  verb  is  shining ;  somewhere  of 
place  to  the  verb  is  shining ;  up  and  down  of  direction  to  the 
Yerh passed  ;  severely  of  degree  to  the  verb  have  suffered  j  there- 
fore of  cause,  and  henceforward  of  time,  to  the  verb  be  (see 
also  section  IV.,  following)  ;  together  of  manner  to  the  verb 
live;  westward  of  direction  to  the  yexh  journeyed ;  when  of 
time  to  the  verb  built;  closely  of  manner  to  the  verb  sewed, 
and  closely  of  manner  to  the  verb  bound. 

Words  that  limit  or  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs  are  adverbs. 

II. 

1.  The  house  where  Whittier  was  bom  is  a  very  old 
New  England  farmhouse. 

2.  The  screech  owl  has  quite  long  ear-tufts  of  feathers 
which  stand  up  very  straight  over  his  yellow  eyes.  He  is 
finely  mottled  above  with  brown,  black,  and  dark  orange. 

What  part  of  speech  is  old  in  the  first  sentence  ?  What 
word  modifies  it  ?  What  part  of  speech  is  long  in  the  second 
sentence  ?  What  word  modifies  it  ?  What  other  words  in  that 
paragraph  modify  adjectives  ? 

Words  that  modify  the  meaning  of  adjectives  are  adverbs. 

III. 

1.  The  hour-hand  of  a  clock  moves  very  slowly,  but  the 
minute-hand  moves  quite  rapidly. 


204    THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

2.  The  cold  and  the  snow  have  come  too  soon. 

3.  The  robins  have  flown  far  away. 

Read  the  first  sentence,  omitting  very  and  quite.  What  do 
slowly  and  rapidly  modify  ?  What  part  of  speech  is  each  ? 
What  word  modifies  each  ?  Read  the  second  sentence,  omitting 
too.  What  does  soon  modify  ?  What  word  modifies  soon  9 
What  does  away  modify  ?    What  modifies  away  9 

Words  that  modify  the  meaning  of  adverhs  are  adverhs. 

lY. 

1.  Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the 
days  of  my  life. 

2.  We  never  looked  upon  a  fairer  sight  than  the  glory 
of  the  sun  upon  the  mountain  snows. 

3.  "  Perhaps  in  this  neglected  spot  is  laid 

Some  heart  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire." 

In  the  above  sentences  the  adverbs  surely,  never,  and  per- 
haps, modify  each  the  sense  of  the  complete  sentence  rather 
than  any  particular  word  in  it. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  that  modifies  the  meaning  of  a 
verl)^  adjective,  or  another  advcrh,  or  the  sense  of  a  complete 
clause  or  sentence. 

An  adverb  that  modifies  a  complete  clause  or  sentence  is 
termed  a  modal  adverb. 

The  adverbs  Yes  and  No,  used  independently  in  answer  to 
questions,  have  the  value  of  complete  sentences  to  which  they 
give  an  affirmative  or  negative  meaning.  They  are  therefore 
modal  adverbs. 

An  adverb  used  to  introduce  a  question  is  an  interrogative 
adverl. 


THE  COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS.  205 

An  adverb  serving  as  a  conjunction  becomes  an  adverbial 
conj unction f  for  the  service  that  a  word  performs  determines 
what  part  of  speech  it  is,  and  any  subordinate  relation  that  it 
holds  may  be  expressed  by  an  adjective  modifying  the  noun 
that  names  its  service. 

An  adverb  sometimes  modifies  a  prepositional  phrase,  as  in 
the  sentence  The  road  goes  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  town. 

The  prepositional  phrase,  beyond  the  limits  of  the  town,  modi- 
fies adverbially  the  verb  goes.  The  adverb  far  modifies  the 
prepositional  phrase.  It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  the  use  of  an 
adverb  to  modify  another  adverb. 

There,  used  to  introduce  a  sentence  but  not  to  indicate  the 
adverbial  relation  of  place,  is  an  expletive,  the  term  meaning 
that  it  is  used  merely  io  fill  out  the  sentence. 


CHAPTER  LIX. 

I. 

THE   COMPARISON    OF  ADVERBS. 

1.  The  horse  goes  swiftly,. 

The  electric  cars  go  more  swiftly. 
The  steam  cars  go  most  swiftly. 

2.  The  robin  sings  sweetly. 

The  bobolink  sings  more  sweetly. 
The  song-sparrow  sings  most  sweetly. 

3.  The  boy  ran  fast,  the  man  ran  faster,  but  the  horse 
T2J1  fast  est. 

4.  Mary  writes  often,  Annie  writes  oftener,  and  Alice 
writes  oftenest. 


206     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


5.  Robert  does  his  work  well,  Arthur  does  his  work 
better,  and  Philip  does  his  work  hest 

The  form  of  most  adverbs  of  manner  and  degree  may  be 
changed  to  express  a  higher,  and  the  highest,  degree  of  what 
is  denoted  by  the  adverb.  This  is  termed  comparison  of 
adverbs. 

Adverbs  are  compared  generally  by  prefixing  to  the  simple 
adverb  more  to  form  the  comparative  degree,  and  most  to  form 
the  superlative  degree. 

Compare  in  this  way  the  adverbs  formed  in  section  IV.  of 
the  preceding  lesson. 

Some  adverbs  add  to  the  positive  -er  to  form  the  compara- 
tive, and  -est  to  form  the  superlative,  thus :  positive  soon,  com- 
parative sooner,  superlative  soonest. 

Compare  in  this  way  the  following  :  fast,  near,  often,  loud. 

The  following  adverbs  are  irregular  in  their  comparison  : 


Positive 

Com^parative 

Superlative 

well 

better 

best 

ill     1 

badly  f 

worse 

worst 

near 
nigh 

nearer 

nearest 

fore 

further 

furthest 

far 

farther 

farthest 

late 

later 

latest ) 
last     S    . 

(rath) 


rather 


Note  :  Rath  is   an   old   word,  not  now  in  use,   meaning 
quichly  ;  hence,  rather  means  more  qicickly,  sootier. 


THE  PARSING   OF  AN  ADVERB.  207 

II. 

THE   PARSING    OF  AN   ADVERB. 
In  parsing  an  adverb  we  state,  in  order  : 

I.     What  kind  of  adverb  it  is — time,  place,  cause,  man- 
ner, direction,  etc. 

II.     Its  degree  of  comparison. 

III.  The  verb,  adjective,  adverb,  phrase,  clause,  or  sen- 
tence, which  it  modifies. 

Parse  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  In  early  summer  the  nests  that  still  have  eggs  in 
them  are  not,  like  the  nests  of  the  earlier  spring  days,  easily 
found. 

2.  The  tall  growth  of  the  grass  quite  covers  the  nests 
of  the  birds  who  build  on  the  ground. 

3.  A  crow  rises  lazily  from  the  field,  and  flies  heavily 
into  an  apple  tree,  cawing  hoarsely  and  dolefully  in  his 
flight. 

4.  A  little  brown  bird  scolds  sharply  from  the  apple 
tree,  and  then,  all  at  once,  with  a  quick  flight,  dives  into 
the  hedge. 

5.  Presently  he  will  be  back  again  in  the  apple  tree, 
watching  sharply  the  strange  and  unwelcome  being  who  has 
come  so  boldly  into  his  domain. 

6.  Birds  differ  as  much  in  their  characteristics  as  men 
do,  but  they  resemble  men  quite  closely  in  caution  and 
curiosity. 

Note  :  When  several  words  are  used  as  a  single  adverbial 
expression,  as  all  at  once  in  the  fourth  sentence,  it  is  best  to 
parse  them  together  as  a  phrase  adverb. 


208     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER    LX, 
THE  USE  OFPREDICATE  ADJECTIVES  AFTER  VERBS  OF  SENSATION,  ETC. 

1.  The  rose  smells  sweet — not  sweetly. 

The  modifier  represents  a  quality  of  the  subject  noun,  not 
a  manner  of  action  of  the  predicate  verb. 

2.  In  her  plain  drab  gown  the  Quakeress  looked  'beauti- 
ful— not  beautifully. 

The  modifier  represents  a  quality  of  the  subject  noun,  not  a 
manner  of  action  of  the  predicate  verb  ;  hence  we  properly  use 
an  adjective — not  an  adverb. 

3.  The  music  sounds  distinct^  but  the  trumpet  sounds 
distinctly. 

The  quality  of  distinctness  belongs  in  the  first  clause  to  the 
music,  not  to  the  action  of  the  verb  ;  in  the  second  clause,  the 
quality  of  distinctness  belongs  to  the  action  of  the  verb  and 
not  to  the  trumpet.  This  difference  may  be  seen  if  we  use  the 
verb  is.  We  may  say,  The  music  is  distinct,  but  we  cannot  say. 
The  trumpet  is  distinct. 

The  error  of  using  an  adverb  instead  of  a  predicate  adjective 
in  such  sentences  as  the  above  is  very  common.  A  careful 
analysis  of  the  following  sentences  will  establish  a  method  of 
deciding  in  such  cases  between  the  adverb  and  the  predicate 
adjective. 

4.  How  sweet  the  flowers  smell ! 

Does  sweet  denote  a  quality  of  the  flowers,  or  the  manner 
of  action  ?  Compare  :  Thefiowers  are  sweet.  The  flowers  sway 
gently. 


o 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10, 


THE   USE  OF  PREDICATE  ADJECTIVES.  209 

The  prisoner  appears  innocent. 

The  prisoner  felt  glad  to  be  released. 

The  flowers  were  arranged  beautifully. 

The  flowers  looked  beautiful,  as  they  were  arranged. 

His  cough  sounds  bad. 

The  boy  sounds  his  r's  badly. 


Give  the  correct  forms  of  the  following  sentences  : 

11.  The  piano  sounds  (bad^  hadly)  because  it  is  out  of  tune. 

12.  It  sounds  {])ad,  hadly)  to  hear  anyone  swear. 

13.  She  feels  {bad,  hadly)  because  her  mother  is  ill. 

14.  She  feels  {bad,  hadly)  because  she  has  done  wrong. 

Note  :  Some  recent  authors  would  use  had  when  moral 
badness  is  implied,  and  hadly  when  the  feeling  arises  from 
something  else  than  the  moral  badness  of  the  subject.  This 
distinction  has  not,  however,  the  authority  of  usage.  It  is 
interesting  to  analyze  such  sentences  as  the  above,  noticing 
whether  moral  badness  is  or  is  not  implied. 

15.  An  old  shoe  feels  {easy,  easily). 

16.  The  apple  in  my  desk  feels  {soft,  sofUy). 

17.  The  boy  feels  {soft,  softly)  in  his  desk  for  his  pen. 

18.  She  looked  {innocent,  innocently)  to  me. 

19.  She  looked  {innocent,  innocently)  at  me. 

Explain  these  sentences  : 

20.  I  gladly  felt  in  my  pocket  for  a  coin  for  the  poor 
man,  and  I  felt  glad  to  help  him. 

21.  The  oaths  that  the  organ  man  uttered  when  his 
organ  sounded  {Ijad,  hadly),  sounded  ij)ad,  hadly). 

14 


210     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

22.  When  I  heard  the  voice  of  my  dear  mother  it 
sounded  {good,  well)  to  me. 

23.  I  knew  that  his  health  was  restored  because  his 
voice  sounded  so  {good,  well). 

24.  The  carriage  rides  easy.     The  carriage  rides  easily. 

Which  of  these  last  sentences  would  represent  the  feeling 
to  the  person  within  the  carriage  ?  Which  would  represent 
the  way  in  which  it  rolls  over  the  road  ? 

25.  As  you  tell  the  story  it  sounds  different.  As  you 
play  the  trumpet  it  sounds  differently. 

Is  each  of  these  sentences  correct  ?    Explain. 


CHAPTER   LXI. 
A    LESSON    FOR    DICTIONARY    WORK   AND    FOR    DISCUSSION. 

A  teacher  who  had  grown  weary  in  correcting  composi- 
tions, fell  asleep  late  one  evening  over  her  work.  From 
her  light  slumber  she  was  aroused  by  the  noise  of  voices 
that  sounded  much  as  they  do  when  they  are  heard  over  a 
telephone.  As  the  teacher's  senses  grew  more  keen,  she 
found  that  the  voices  came  from  some  little  beings  that 
seemed  to  be  sitting  on  the  pile  of  compositions  and  hold- 
ing a  discussion  there.  They  were  Familiar  Words  who 
were  discussing  their  wrongs. 

"  The  children  are  not  entirely  to  blame  for  misusing 
us,"  said  the  first  speaker.  "  They  do  as  the  big  people 
with  whom  they  associate  do — their  fathers  and  mothers, 
for  example." 


A  LESSON  FOE  DICTIONARY  WORK.  211 

"  But  their  fathers  and  mothers  may  not  have  been 
taught  how  to  treat  us,  and  these  children  have,"  said  a 
little  fellow ;  "  although  I  have  reason  to  complain  very 
severely  of  the  treatment  that  nearly  everyone  gives  me. 
Now  my  name  is  Of,  and  I  am  not  very  big,  but  that  is  no 
reason  why  everybody  should  take  advantage  of  me.  I  am 
the  most  mercilessly  overworked  word  in  the  dictionary. 
People  say  that  they  '  consider  of '  and  *  approve  of '  and 
'  accept  of '  and  '  admit  of '  all  sorts  of  things.  Then  they 
say  '  all  of  us '  and  '  both  of  them '  and  '  first  of  all,'  and 
they  tell  about  looking  '  out  of  the  window '  or  cutting  a 
piece  of  bread  '  off  of  the  loaf.'  " 

"  Pshaw  ! "  said  the  word  C^?,  "  I  am  not  much  bigger 
than  you,  and  I  do  twice  as  much  work.  People  '  wake  up  ' 
in  the  morning  and  '  shake  up  '  the  bed  and  '  wash  up '  and 
'  dress  up  '  and  '  draw  up  '  to  the  table  and  'eat  up '  and 

*  drink  up '  their  breakfast.  Then  they '  jump  up '  from  the 
table  and  '  hurry  up  '  to  '  go  up  '  to  the  corner  where  the 
street  car  driver  '  pulls  up  '  and  the  passengers  *  ascend  up  ' 
the  steps  and  '  go  up  '  into  the  front  seats,  and  the  conductor 
'  takes  up  '  their  fares.  All  that  is  done  before  people  '  get 
up '  town  and  '  take  up '  their  day's  work.  From  that  time 
until  they  '  put  up  '  their  books  and  '  shut  up  '  their  offices 
I  do  more  work  than  any  two  Avords  in  the  book,  and  even 
after  business  hours  I  am  worked  until  people  '  lock  up ' 
their  houses  and  *  go  up '  to  bed  and  '  cover  themselves  up ' 
and  '  shut  up  '  their  eyes  for  the  night.  All  this  is  not  half 
of  what  I  have  to  '  put  up '  with,  and  I  am  a  good  deal 

*  worked  up  '  over  it." 

"  I  do  a  great  deal  of  needless  work,"  said  But.    "  People 


212     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

say  that  they  have  no  doubt  '  but  that '  it  will  rain,  and 
that  they  shouldn't  wonder  '  but  that '  it  would  snow." 

"  What  I  complain  of,"  said  the  word  As,  "  is  that  I  am 
forced  to  associate  so  much  with  the  word  Equally.  Only 
yesterday  a  man  said  that  he  could  see  '  equally  as '  well  as 
another  man.  I  don't  see  what  business  Equally  had  in 
that  sentence." 

"  We,  too,  ought  to  be  granted  divorce,"  said  a  clamor 
of  many  voices,  among  which  could  be  distinguished  those 
of  these  couples :  Cover  Over,  Enter  In,  From  Thence,  Go 
Fetch,  Have  Got,  Latter  End,  Continue  On,  Converse  To- 
gether, Ne\o  Beginner,  Old  Veteran,  Retmrn  Bach,  Rise  Ujp^ 
Sinh  Down,  They  Both,  Try  And,  More  Perfect,  Seldom 
Ever,  Almost  Never,  Feel  Badly,  United  Together,  Over 
Again,  Repeat  Again,  and  others. 

When  quietude  had  been  restored,  the  word  Rest  said, 
"  It  is  much  worse  to  be  cut  out  of  your  own  work.  I  am 
ready  to  perform  my  part  in  the  speech  of  the  day,  but 
almost  everybody  passes  me  and  employs  my  awkward 
friend  Balance.  It  is  the  most  common  thing  in  the  world 
to  hear  people  say  that  they  will  pay  the  '  balance '  of  the 
debt  or  will  sleep  the  '  balance '  of  the  night." 

"  I  should  like  to  protest,"  said  Among,  "  against  Mr. 
Between  doing  my  work.  The  idea  of  a  man  saying  that  he 
divided  an  orange  '  between  his  three  children  ' ! " 

"  It  is  no  worse,"  said  Fewer,  "  than  to  have  people  say 
that  there  were  '  less '  men  in  one  army  than  in  the  other." 

"  IS'o,"  added  More  Than,  "  and  no  worse  than  to  have 
them  say  that  there  were  '  over '  100,000  men." 

"  My  friend  Liable  is  doing  nearly  all  of  my  work,"  said 


A  LESSON  FOR  DICTIONARY  WORK.  313 

Likely.  "  People  say  a  man  is  '  liable '  to  be  sick  or  *  liable ' 
to  be  out  of  town,  when  the  question  of  liability  does  not 
enter  the  matter  at  all." 

"That  fellow  Such  is  doing  all  of  my  work,"  said  So, 
"  People  say  that  there  was  never  '  such '  a  glorious  country 
as  this,  when  they  mean,  of  course,  that  there  was  never  so 
glorious  a  country  elsewhere." 

"  I  heard  someone  say,"  said  Yery^  that  she  was  awfully 
glad  that  it  was  going  to  be  vacation,  and  she  was  a 
teach — " 

At  this  instant  a  slight  breeze,  or  possibly  some  other 
cause,  toppled  the  uppermost  composition  upon  the  desk, 
and  when  the  teacher  had  replaced  it,  it  was  evident  from 
the  silence  that  the  convention  had  adjourned. 

—Adapted  from  "Language  that  Needs  a  Rest," 

by  Willis  Brooks  Hawkins. 

After  the  study  and  discussion  of  the  correct  use  of  these 
words,  the  pupils  should  write  sentences  containing  them  prop- 
erly used.  Make  a  list  of  these  words  in  the  order  in  which 
they  occur,  and  number  them.  "Write  sentences  containing 
•words  one,  two,  and  three,  for  one  day  ;  luords  two,  three,  and 
four,  for  the  next  day  ;  words  three,  four,  and  five  for  the  next 
day,  etc. 

In  this  way  each  word  will  be  written  in  three  different 
sentences  on  consecutive  days,  by  each  pupil,  with  the  advan- 
tage of  dwelling  upon  their  correct  use  the  longer  time. 


314     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRA31MAR. 


CHAPTER  LXII. 
THE    USE    OF  CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

Begin  with  a  capital  letter  : 

The  first  word  of  a  sentence, 

The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry, 

Every  proper  noun, 

Every  proper  adjective  (adjective  derived  from  a  proper 
noun). 

All  names  applied  to  God  and  to  Jesus  Christ, 

The  names  of  religious  denominations,  of  political  parties, 
of  great  historical  events,  and  of  days  designated  for 
patriotic,  religious,  or  memorial  observance. 

Common  nouns  personified, 

The  names  of  the  months. 

The  names  of  the  days  of  the  week, 

The  words  North,  South,  East,  and  West,  when  meaning 
sections  of  the  country,  but  not  when  meaning  points  of  the 
compass. 

Titles  of  honor  and  respect. 

Titles  of  relationship  when  forming  a  part  of  the 
address. 

The  words  sir,  madam,  and  their  plurals,  sirs,  gentle- 
men, mesdames,  when  used  in  the  salutation  of  a  letter, 

The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation. 

The  important  words  in  the  titles  of  books,  essays,  and 
other  literary  articles. 

The  words  I  and  0  are  always  ^vritten  in  capitals. 


THE  USE  OF  CAPITAL  LETTERS.  215 

Justify  the  use  of  capitals  in  the  following  selections  : 

1.  Character  is  what  we  are ;  reputation  is  what  others 
think  us  to  be. 

2.  When  the  English  Pilgrims  went  to  Holland,  they 
were  quiet  and  happy  for  awhile,  but  they  were  very  poor ; 
and  when  the  children  began  to  grow  up,  they  Avere  not 
like  English  children,  but  talked  Dutch,  like  the  little  ones 
of  Holland,  and  some  grew  naughty  and  did  not  wish  to  go 
to  church  any  more. 

3.  Glory  to  Thee,  my  God,  this  night, 
For  all  the  blessings  of  the  light ; 
Keep  me,  O  keep  me,  King  of  kings. 
Beneath  Thine  own  almighty  wings. 

— Thomas  Ken. 

4.  The  church  of  the  Episcopalians  was  of  brown  stone. 
A  gilded  cross  rose  from  its  graceful  tower,  and  a  broad  lawn 
of  well-kept  greensward  surrounded  it. 

5.  Come,  gentle  Peace,  and  vvith  your  presence  heal  the 
land  o'er  which  the  iron  heel  of  War  has  trampled. 

6.  First  April,  she  with  mellow  showers. 
Opens  the  way  for  early  flowers ; 
Then  after  her  comes  smiling  May 
In  a  more  rich  and  sweet  array ; 
Next  enters  June  and  brings  us  more 
Gems  than  the  two  that  went  before ; 
Then  lastly  July  comes,  and  she 

More  wealth  brings  than  all  those  three. 

—Egbert  Herrick. 


216     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

7.  The  storm  detained  us  in  Portsmouth  from  Wednes- 
day to  Saturday. 

8.  Strive  as  God's  saints  have  striven  in  all  ages  : 

Press  those  slow  steps  where  other  feet  have  trod : 
For  us  their  lives  adorn  the  sacred  pages, 

For  them  a  crown  of  glory  is  with  God. 
Soldiers  of  Jesus  !  blest  who  endure ! 
Stand  in  the  battle  !     The  victory  is  sure. 

9.  I  look  hopefully  forward  to  the  time  when  peace 
and  unity  shall  hold  sway  over  the  whole  land ;  when  there 
shall  be  no  North,  no  South,  no  East,  no  West,  but  one 
undivided  country. 

10.  The  President  of  the  United  States,  the  Governor 
of  the  Commonwealth,  the  Mayor  of  the  city  of  Boston. 

11.  My  dear  Sir :  My  dear  Madam  :  My  dear  Mother : 
My  dear  Aunt  Mary : 

12.  Will  you  kindly  give  this  copy  of  "Will  Shake- 
speare's Little  Lad  "  to  my  aunt,  Miss  Louisa  Pyne  ? 

13.  Please  give  my  loving  wishes  to  Aunt  Louisa. 

14.  A  German  poet  says,  "  Kindness  is  the  golden  chain 
by  which  the  world  is  bound  together." 

15.  David  Crockett  said,  "  Be  sure  you're  right — then 
go  ahead !  " 

16.  Sarah  Orne  Jewett  wrote  "  Tales  of  S^ew  England." 
IT.     I  have  been  reading  "  At  the  Back  of  the  North 

Wind,"  by  George  Macdonald. 

18.  In  support  of  a  measure  so  profoundly  patriotic, 
party  lines  were  swept  aside,  and  Kepublicans  and  Demo- 
crats voted  only  as  loyal  sons  of  one  common  country. 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  ''SHALL''  AND  ''WILL."      217 


CHAPTER   LXIII. 

THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  "SHALL  "   AND   "  WILL."  AND  OF  "SHOULD  " 
AND   "WOULD." 


1.  I  shall  see  the  general  to-morrow. 

2.  You  will  see  the  general  to-morrow. 

Each  of  these  sentences  states  simply  a  future  act — some- 
thing that  naturally  will  happen — simple  futurity. 

3.  I  will  see  the  general  to-morrow. 

4.  You  shall  see  the  general  to-morrow. 

Each  of  these  sentences  expresses  a  future  act  that  will 
happen  because  of  the  determination,  wish,  or  willingness  of 
the  speaker — distinct  volition.  ( Volition  means  an  exercise 
of  the  will.) 

To  express  simple  future  action^  use  shall  in  the  Jurst  per- 
son and  will  in  tJie  second  and  third  persons. 

To  express  future  action  that  will  happen  hecause  of  the 
determination,  wish,  or  willingness  of  the  speaker,  use  will  in 
the  first  person,  and  shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons. 

What  do  shall  and  will  express  in  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences ? 

5.  I  shall  never  go  to  that  place  again. 

6.  I  will  never  go  to  that  place  again. 

Y.  If  I  buy  "  Betty  Alden  "  I  shall  not  keep  it.  I  will 
give  it  to  you.  You  ^vi\\  read  it  Avith  much  pleasure,  and 
it  will  strengthen  your  interest  in  the  early  colonial  history. 


318     THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

8.  His  memory  is  very  good,  and  I  am  sure  that  he  will 
not  forget  his  promise. 

9.  He  shall  not  forget  his  promise,  for  I  will  remind 
him  of  it. 

10.  "We  shall  never  again  behold  the  army  marching 
with  unbroken  ranks,  but  we  will  not  forget  the  dead 
heroes.  We  will  cover  their  graves  with  flowers,  we  will 
recount  their  deeds  of  heroism,  we  will  teach  the  children 
to  love  and  honor  them,  ^o,  their  lives  and  deeds  shall 
not  be  forgotten. 

Decide  if  simple  futurity  or  distinct  volition  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  following  sentences,  and  insert  shall  or  will 
accordingly. 

11.  I be  happy  to  do  you  a  kindness. 

12.  You be  sorry  if  your  friend  goes  away. 

13.  You not  make  so  great  a  sacrifice  for  me;  I 

not  allow  it. 


14.  If  you  give  me  "  Evangeline,"  I value  it  highly. 

15.  We always  be  delighted  to  see  our  friends. 

n. 

1.  Mr.    Sumner   says,    "  I    shall    see   the    general  to- 
rrow." 

2.  Mr.   Sumner  says  that  he  shall  see  the  general  to- 
morrow. 

3.  Mr.   Sumner  says,    "  I  will  see  the  general  to-mor- 
row." 

4.  Mr.    Sumner   says  that  he  mil  see  the  general  to- 
morrow. 


THE  CORRECT  USE  OF  ''SHALL''  AND   ''WILL."     219 

A  direct  quotation  is  one  in  which  the  actual  words,  of  the 
speaker  are  used,  such  words  being  inclosed  in  quotation 
marks,  as  in  the  first  and  third  sentences  above. 

An  indirect  quotation  is  one  in  which  the  thought,  but  not 
the  exact  words  of  the  speaker,  are  given,  as  in  the  second  and 
fourth  sentences  above. 

In  indirect  quotations  shall  {or  should)  is  used  when  the 
exact  words  of  the  speaker  contained  shall  {or  should),  and 
will  {or  would)  is  used  when  the  exact  words  of  the  speaker 
contained  will  {or  would). 

Why  are  should  and  tvould  used  in  the  following  sentences  ? 

5.  My  mother  said,  "I  shall  give  you  Hawthorne's 
*  Wonder  Book '  for  your  Christmas  gift.  You  will  find  it 
very  interesting." 

6.  My  mother  said  that  she  should  give  me  Haw- 
thorne's "  Wonder  Book  "  for  my  Christmas  gift,  and  that 
I  would  find  it  very  interesting. 

7.  Frank's  father  said  to  him,  "  I  shall  go  to  Washing- 
ton  during  your  vacation,  and  I  will  take  you  with  me." 

8.  Frank's  father  said  to  him  that  he  should  go  to 
Washington  during  his  vacation,  and  that  he  would  take 
him  with  him. 

9.  The  little  girl  thinks  that  she  shall  not  be  afraid  of 
the  animals  in  the  cages. 

What  is  her  direct  thought  ?    What  does  shall  express  ? 

10.  The  little  boy  thinks  that  he  will  try  to  learn  "  The 
Wreck  of  the  Hesperus." 

What  is  his  direct  thought  ?    What  does  will  express  ? 


320     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

11.  I  am  afraid  that  I  shall  not  be  able  to  go  to  the 
seashore. 

12.  My  father  is  afraid  that  I  will  not  consent  to  go  to 
the  seashore. 

13.  My  father  is  afraid  that  he  shall  not  be  able  to  go 
to  the  seashore. 

What  is  the  direct  thought  in  each  of  the  above  sentences  ? 
Explain  the  use  of  shall  and  will. 

Quote  these  thoughts  indirectly  after  the  following  past 
tenses  : 

I  was  afraid  that  ;  My  father  was  afraid  that  I ; 

My  father  was  afraid  that  he . 

III. 

1.  Shall  you  see  the  general  to-morrow?  I  shall  see 
him. 

2.  Will  you  ask  him  to  call  upon  me  ?    I  will  ask  him. 

3.  Will  you  please  lend  me  your  book  ?  I  will,  with 
pleasure. 

4.  Shall  you  need  it  before  to-morrow?  I  shall  not 
need  it. 

6.  Will  there  be  a  holiday  next  week  ?  Monday  will 
be  a  holiday. 

6.  Shall  Lester  be  allowed  to  be  disobedient  ?  IS'o,  Mr. 
Eandolph,  Lester  shall  not  be  allowed  to  be  disobedient. 

In  asking  questions  use  shall  {or  should)  invariahly  in  the 
first  person^  and  in  the  second  or  third  person  use  that  form 
of  the  verb  which  the  answer  will  cordain — shall  {or  should) 
if  the  answer  will  contain  shall  {or  should),  will  {or  would)  if 
the  answer  will  contain  will  {or  would). 


THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE.  231 

Insert  the  right  auxiliaries  in  the  following  sentences  : 

7.     you  be  at  home  this  evening,  and,  if  you  are, 

—  you  show  me  your  photographs  of  Italian  views  ? 


8.  " I  go  to  the  feast  ?  "  said  an  engineer  in  Hol- 
land one  stormy  day,  "  or I  stay  to  help  take  care  of 

the  dykes  ?  "     He  thought  a  moment,  then  said,  "  Take  care 
of  the  dykes  I  must  and ." 

9.     you  like  to  hear  the  story  of  "  The  Paradise  of 

Children  "  ? 

10.     you  study  the  harder  if  I  take  the  time  to  tell 

it  to  you  ? 

11.  "  I thrash  the  enemy  to-day,  or  die  a-trying," 

said  General  Houston,  on  the  morning  of  the  battle  of  San 
Jacinto. 

CHAPTER    LXIV. 
THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE. 

1.  The  robin  is  our  best-known  bird. 

2.  Robins  build  strong,  compact  nests. 

3.  They  build  a  frame  of  twigs  and  weed  stems  in  the 
crotch  of  a  branch. 

4.  They  line  this  with  mud. 

5.  The  birds  mold  this  mud  with  their  breasts. 

6.  The  soft  inner  lining  of  the  nest  is  formed  of  hair 
and  dry  grass. 

What  is  the  subject  of  each  of  these  sentences  ?  the  predi- 
cate ?  What  is  the  subject  nominative  of  each  of  these  sen- 
tences ?  the  predicate  verb  ?    How  many  subjects  nominative 


223     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

in  each  sentence  ?    How  many  predicate  verbs  ?    How  many 
complete  thoughts  in  each  sentence  ? 

7.  The  flight  and  song  of  the  robin  are  characteristic. 

8.  He  flies  rapidly  and  moves  through  the  air  in  straight 
lines. 

What  are  the  subjects  of  each  sentence  ?  the  predicates  ? 
What  are  the  subjects  nominative  in  the  first  sentence  ?  Is 
each  the  subject  of  the  same  predicate  verb  ?  What  is  the 
subject  nominative  of  the  second  sentence  ?  What  are  the 
predicate  verbs  ?  Has  each  predicate  verb  the  same  subject 
nominative  ? 

9.  Eobins  and  bluebirds  come  early  in  the  spring  and 
delight  us  with  their  sweet  songs. 

What  are  the  subjects  nominative  of  this  sentence  ?  the 
predicate  verbs  ?  Is  each  predicate  verb  the  predicate  verb  of 
the  first  subject  nominative  ?  of  the  second  subject  nominative  ? 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  containing  a  single  sub- 
ject nominative  or  a  group  of  subjects  nominative,  and  a  sin- 
gle predicate  verb  or  a  group  of  predicate  verbs,  and  is  the 
expression  of  a  single  complete  thought. 

The  expression  of  a  single  complete  thought  may  con- 
tain: 

One  subject  nominative  and  its  predicate  verb. 

Two  or  more  subjects  nominative,  and  one  predicate  verb 
which  is  common  to  them. 

One  subject  nominative,  and  two  or  more  predicate  verbs 
of  which  it  is  the  common  subject  nominative. 


THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SIMPLE  SENTENCES.  223 

Two  or  more  subjects  nominative,  and  two  or  more  predi- 
cate verbs  common  to  all  of  the  subjects  nominative. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  nominative  noun  or  pro- 
noun and  all  of  its  modifiers ;  the  subject  7iominative  of  a  sen- 
tence is  the  nominative  noun  or  pronoun  alone. 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is  the  predicate  verb  with  all  of 
its  modifiers  ;  the  predicate  verb  of  a  sentence  is  the  verb  alone 
of  the  predicate. 

Write  the  model  sentences  given,  drawing  a  single  horizon- 
tal line  under  the  subject  of  each  sentence,  and  two  horizontal 
lines  under  the  predicate,  thus  : 

The  robvn  is  our  best  known  bird. 


CHAPTER    LXV. 
THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SIMPLE  SENTENCES. 

The  analysis  of  a  sentence  consists  of  : 

I.  The  separation  of  the  sentence  into  its  subject 
and  predicate. 
II.  The  statement  of  what  is  the  subject  nominative, 
and  what  are  its  modifiers ;  and  of  what  is  the 
predicate  verb,  and  what  are  its  modifiers. 
III.  The  statement  of  the  relation  of  the  several  parts 
of  any  modifier  consisting  of  more  than  one 
word. 


224     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


Illustrative  Analyses  of  Simjole  Sentences. 

1.     The  sweet  singing  of  the  birds  quickly  aroused  me 
from  my  light  slumber. 

The  sweet  singing  of  the  hirds  quickly  aroused  me  from 


TYiy  light  sluTnber. 


Subject  nominative^  singing 


The 

sweet 
of  birds 


the 


Predicate  verh.        aroused 


me 

quickly 
from  slumber 


my 
light 


The  modifiers  of  each  word  lie  beyond  the  vertical  line  that 
follows  it.  A  dash  beyond  that  line  shows  that  there  is  no 
further  modification. 

Note  :  The  value  of  grapliic  analysis  is  in  its  being  done 
with  greater  economy  of  time^  and  with  less  fatigue  and 
nervous  tension,  than  oral  analysis.  Furthermore,  it  shows  to 
the  teacher  almost  at  a  glance  whether  or  not  the  pupil  under- 
stands the  construction  of  a  sentence  and  the  relation  of  its 
several  parts.  If  the  teacher  thinks  it  wise  to  have  oral  analyses 
given,  it  will  be  found  the  best  plan  to  make  graphic  analyses 
first,  and  to  use  these  as  bases  of  the  oral  work.     The  system 


THE  ANALYSIS  OF  SIMPLE  SENTENCES. 


225 


of  graphic  analysis  here  given  is  extremely  simple,  and  a  care- 
ful study  of  the  illustrative  models  will  easily  make  one  master 
of  it. 

2.  Mounted  on  Kyrat  strong  and  fleet, 

His  chestnut  steed  with  four  white  feet, 

Roushan  Beg,  called  Kurroglou, 
Son  of  the  road  and  bandit  chief, 


Seeking  refuge  and  relief. 
Up  the  mountain  pathway  flew. 


-From  "The  Leap  of  Rouslian  Beg," 

by  Longfellow. 


Sulj,  nom.,  Eoushan  Beg 


called-Kurroglou  |  - 
son  I  of  road  |  the  |  - 

chief 
mounted 


bandit  I - 

Kyrat 


on 


strong 


§ 

Q. 


(steed) 


his  I- 
chestnut 
with  feet 


fleet  I  - 
steed 

(see  helow) 


I  seeking 


refuge 


four  I  - 
white  1  - 


relief 


Pred.  verb,  flew  |  up  pathway 


the  I  - 
mountain 


The  brace  signifies  that  the  word  following  it  is  an  apposi- 

tive. 

15 


226     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  : 

3.  The  groves  were  God's  first  temples. 

4.  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother.  (What  is  the 
subject  ?) 

5.  How  faithfully  the  dog  guards  his  little  master  ! 

6.  The  moon  and  the  myriad  stars  shone  in  the 
heavens. 

Y.     How  beautiful  the  eyes  of  the  patient  oxen  are  ! 

8.  So  the  autumn  came  and  passed. 

9.  He  was  not  killed,  but  was  severely  injured. 

10.  Wonderful  things  are  hidden  away  in  the  heart  of 
a  little  brown  seed :  the  stalk  and  the  leaf,  and  the  blossoms 
so  gay,  and  the  delightful  fragrance. 

11.  "  Over  my  shaded  doorway, 

Two  little  brown-winged  birds 

Have  chosen  to  fashion  their  dwelling. 

And  utter  their  loving  words." 

CHAPTER    LXVI. 
THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE. 

1.  What  you  have  done  is  the  deed  of  a  hero. 

What  is  the  first  verb  in  this  sentence  ?  What  is  its  sub- 
ject nominative  ?  What  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  is?  What 
kind  of  a  clause  is  What  you  have  done  9 

2.  Last  spring  I  saw  a  meadow  that  was  full  of  cowslips. 

What  is  the  first  verb  in  this  sentence  ?  What  is  its  subject 
nominative  ?  What  is  the  second  verb  in  this  sentence  ?  AVhat 
is  its  subject  nominative  ?  AYhat  kind  of  a  clause  is  that  was 
full  of  cowslips  9 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.  237 

Let  us  put  a  wavering  line  over  the  modifying  clause  of  this 
sentence  : 

Last  spring  I  saw  afield  iJiat  was  full  of  cowslips. 

3.  I  thought  of  the  beautiful  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold 
of  which  I  have  read. 

Find  each  verb  in  this  sentence  and  its  subject  nominative. 
Which  of  these  verbs  is  in  a  modifying  clause  ?  What  does  the 
clause  modify  ?  What  kind  of  a  clause  is  it  ?  Write  the  sen- 
tence, drawing  a  wavering  line  over  the  modifying  clause. 

4.  The  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold  was  a  plain  in  France 
Avhere  the  king  of  France  and  the  king  of  England  met  in 
1520. 

Find  each  verb  in  this  sentence  and  its  subject  nominative. 
Which  of  these  verbs  is  in  a  modifying  clause  ?  AVhat  does  it 
modify  ?  What  kind  of  a  clause  is  it  ?  Write  the  sentence, 
drawing  a  wavering  line  over  the  modifying  clause. 

5.  If  you  read  the  history  of  England  you  will  learn 
the  interesting  story  of  this  meeting. 

What  is  the  first  verb  in  this  sentence  ?  What  is  its  subject 
nominative  ?  What  is  the  second  verb  ?  What  is  its  subject 
nominative  ?  Which  of  these  verbs  is  in  a  conditional  or 
modifying  clause  ?  What  does  this  conditional  clause  modify  ? 
What  kind  of  a  clause  is  it  ?  Write  the  sentence^  drawing  a 
wavering  line  over  the  modifying  clause. 

In  each  of  these  sentences  the  wavering  line  over  the  noun  or 
the  modifying  clause  shows  the  subordinate  clause  ;  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  is  the  principal  thought,  called  the  principal  clause. 

A  complex  sentence  is  one  containing  a  clause  used 
as  a  noun  or  as  a  modifier. 


228     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER    LXVIl. 
THE   ANALYSIS    OF   COMPLEX    SENTENCES. 

The  following  are  given  as  models  for  the  analysis  of  com- 
plex sentences.     They  should  be  carefully  studied  : 

1.  What  you  heme  done  is  the  deed  of  a  hero. 

This  is   a   complex  sentence  with  a   subordinate  noun 
clause. 

Subj.  nom.  {sub.  noun  clause),  What  you  have  done  |  - 
{analysis  of  noun  clause) 
subj.  nom.,   you  |  - 
pred.  verb,  have  done  |  what  |  - 

Pred.  verb,  is-deed  |  of  hero  |  a  |  - 
The  hyphen  connecting  is  and  deed  shows  the  predicate 
relation  of  deed. 

2.  Last  spring  I  saw  a  meadow  that  was  full  qf  cowslips. 
This  is  a  complex  sentence  with  a  subordinate  adjective 

clause. 


Subj.  nom.,   I  I  - 
Fred,  verb,   saw 


meadow    a  |  - 

{adj.  clause)  that  was  full  of 
cowslips  I  - 
spring  I  last  [  - 


{analysis  of  adjective  clause) 
subj.  nom.,   that  |  - 
pred.  verb,   was-full  |  of  cowslips  |  - 

3.  I  thought  of  the  beautiful  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold 
where  the  hing  of  France  and  the  king  of  England  met 
mT52a 


THE  ANALYSIS  OF  COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 


229 


This  is  a  complex  sentence  with  a  subordinate  adjective 
clause. 


Suhj.  nom.,   I  |  - 
Pred.  verb,   thought 


of  field 


the  I  - 

beautiful  I  - 

of  Cloth  I  of  Gold  I  - 

{adj.  dause)  where  the 
king  of  trance  and  the 
king  of  England  met  in 
1520   I  - 


{analysis  of  adjective  clause) 
king    of  France  |  - 


nom.. 


king 


of  England  |  - 


2>red.  verb,  met 


where  |  - 
in  1520  I  - 


4.     If  you  read  the  history  of  England  you  will  learn  the 
interesting  story  of  that  meeting. 

This  is  a  complex  sentence  Avith  a  subordinate  adverbial 
(conditional)  clause. 

Subj.  nom.,   you  |  - 

Pred,  verb,   will  learn     story    the  |  - 

interesting  I  - 
of  meeting  I  that  |  - 
{adverbial  clause)   If  you  read  the 
history  of  England  |  - 

{analysis  of  adverbial  clause) 

subj.  nom.,   you  |  - 

yred.  verb,   read  |  history     the  |  - 

of  England  |  - 

learn-7/^-read. 


230      THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRA3IMAR. 

5.     "  For  when   the  heart  goes  hefore,  lihe  a  lamj)^  and 

illumines  the  pathway^ 
Many  things  are  made  clear,  that  else  lie  hidden  hi 

darlinessP 
This  is  a   complex   sentence   containing  a   subordinate 
adverbial  clause  and  a  subordinate  adjective  clause. 

Svhj.  nom.,   things     Many  |  - 

{adj.   claused   that   else  lie  hidden   in 
darkness  [  - 

{analysis  of  adjective  clause) 


subj.  nom,.   that  I  hidden 


in  darkness  |  - 
else  I  - 


pred.  verb,   lie  |  - 

(adv.  clause)  when  the  heart 
goes  before,  like  a  lamp,  and 
illumines  the  pathway  |  - 


Pred.  verh,  are  made-clear 

{analysis  of  adverbial  clause) 


subj.  nom.,   heart 

the  1  - 

like  1  lamp 

goes  1  before  [  - 

pred,  verbs,    P 

a    - 


illumines  |  pathway  |  the  |  - 
are  made  clQ^x-when-goe^  and  illumines 
For  is  merely  an  introductory  word. 

Use  the  following  order  in  the  analysis  of  complex  sentences  : 
I.     Find  the  subject  nominative  of  each  verb. 
II.     Determine  the  full  clause  of  which  each  verb  and 
its  subject  nominative  are  a  part. 
III.     Select  the  principal  clause. 
ly.     Decide  what  kind  of  a  clause  each  subordinate  one  is. 


THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  231 

Y.  Analyze  the  principal  clause,  placing  each  sub- 
ordinate clause  in  such  relation  to  it  as  its  kind  (noun,  ad- 
jective, or  adverb  clause)  determines ;  then — 

YI.  Analyze  each  subordinate  clause  as  if  it  were  in 
itself  a  sentence. 

CHAPTER    LXVIII. 
THE    COMPOUND    SENTENCE. 

1.  Little  deeds  of  kindness  make  life  pleasant;  great 
deeds  of  self-sacrifice  make  life  noble. 

With  what  punctuation  marks  may  we  close  a  complete 
sentence  ?  How  many  sentences  are  there  in  the  above  illus- 
tration ?  What  is  the  subject  nominative  of  the  first  verb  ? 
of  the  second  verb  ?  Is  either  of  these  clauses  a  noun  clause, 
or  modifying  clause  ?  Are  the  two  statements  independent 
thoughts,  neither  modifying  the  other  ? 

2.  He  who  sows  courtesy  reaps  friendship ;  and  he  who 
plants  kindness  gathers  love. 

How  many  independent  thoughts  are  there  in  the  above  sen- 
tence ?  What  is  the  first  thought  ?  the  second  ?  What  kind 
of  a  sentence  is  the  first  thought  in  itself?  the  second  ? 

3.  "  The  birds  are  glad ;  the  brier  rose  fills 

The  air  with  sweetness ;  all  the  hills 
Stretch  green  to  June's  unclouded  sky." 
How  many  independent  thoughts   are  there  in  the  above 
selection  ?    What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  each  thought  ? 

A  compound  sentence  is  the  expression  in  one  sen- 
tence of  two  or  more  independent  thoughts. 

The  several  independent  thoughts  that  are  joined  to  form  a 
compound  sentence  are  its  elements.      If  tlie  elements  are  in 


232     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


themselves  simple  sentences  the  sentence  is  called  a  compound 
sentence  witli  simple  elements.  If  one,  two,  or  more,  of  the  ele- 
ments are  in  themselves  complex  sentences,  the  sentence  is  called 
a  compound  sentence  xoitli  one,  two,  or  more,  complex  elements. 

The  analysis  of  a  compound  sentence  consists  in  stating  what 
kind  of  a  compound  sentence  it  is,  and  what  are  its  elements ; 
and  then  analyzing  its  elements  as  simple  or  complex  sentences. 

The  following  are  illustrations  of  the  analysis  of  compound 
sentences  : 

'^ There,  too,  the  dovecote  stood,  with  its  meeh  and  innocent 
inmates 
Murmuring  ever  of  love,  while  above  in  the  variant  breezes 
N'umherless  noisy  weathercocks  rattled  and  sang  of  mutation?'^ 

This  is  a  compound  sentence  ^vith  two  simple  elements. 
I — First  Element. 


Suhj.  nom.,   dovecote 


The  I  - 
with  inmates 


(Murmuring) 


its  I  - 
meek  |  - 
and 

innocent  |  - 
Muraiuring 


There  | 

too  i  - 


Pred.   verb,    stood 

■Second  Element. 
Suhj.  nom.,   weathercocks 


ever  ]  - 
of  love 


rattled 
Pred.  verbs,     and 
sang 


IN'umberless  |  - 
noisy  |  - 

above  |  - 

the  I  - 
variant  I  ■ 


in  breezes 
of  mutation 


Note  :    Too  and  above  are  really  modal  adverbs.     See  page 


304. 


SENTENCES  FOR  ANALYSIS.  238 

Me  who  has  a  thousand  friends  has  not  a  friend  to  spare. 
And  he  who  has  one  enemy  will  meet  him  everywhere. 

This  is  a  compound  sentence  with  two   complex  ele- 
ments. 

First  Element. 


Suhj.  norn.,     He 


{adj.   clause)    who   has    a    thousand 
friends  I  - 


{analysis  of  adjective  clause) 
rt  suhj.  nom.,   who  |  - 

^  pred.  verb.,    has  |  friends  |  thousand  |  a  |  - 

Pred.  verb.,  has     not  |  - 

friend  |  a  |  - 
to  spare  |  - 

' — Second  Element. 

Bubj.  nom.,   he  |  {adj.  clause)  who  has  one  enemy 
{analysis  of  adjective  clause) 
suhj.  nom.,  who  |  - 
^ed.  verb,  has  |  enemy  |  one  |  - 


Pred.  verb,  will  meet 


him  I  - 
everyAvhere 


CHAPTER    LXIX. 

SENTENCES    FOR    ANALYSIS. 

1.  Gratitude  is  the  fairest  flower  that  springs  from  the 
soil ;  and  the  heart  of  man  knoweth  none  more  fragrant. 

2.  The  fairest  flowers  may  grow  in  the  blackest  soil. 

3.  "  The  days  are  stilled,  and  the  long  nights  hushed, 

And  the-  far  sky  bums  like  the  heart  of  a  rose ; 
And  the  woods,  with  the  gold  of  autumn  flushed, 
Lavish  their  splendors  in  crimson  snows." 


234     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

4.  This  meadow  is  the  playground  of  the  red- winged 
blackbird. 

5.  As  we  stroll  along  he  flies  over  our  heads. 

6.  He  calls  out  o-ha-lee^  and  then  soars  slowly  down  to 
the  ground. 

7.  His  red  wings  are  like  a  soldier's  epaulets. 

8.  "  The  little  bird  sits  at  his  door  in  the  sun, 

Atilt  like  a  blossom  among  the  leaves, 
And  lets  his  illumined  being  o'errun 
"With  the  deluge  of  summer  it  receives." 

9.  "  His  mate  feels  the  eggs  beneath  her  wings, 

And  the  heart  in  her  dumb  breast  flutters  and  sings ; 
He  sings  to  the  wide  Avorld,  and  she  to  her  nest, — 
In  the  nice  ear  of  IN'ature  which  song  is  the  best  ?  " 

10.  Many  a  boy  values  the  Bible  that  his  mother  gave 
him,  because  she  gave  it  to  him. 

11.  "  In  your  hearts  are  the  birds  and  the  sunshine, 

In  your  thoughts  [is]  the  brooklet's  flow." 

12.  As  a  pinch  of  lampblack  will  soil  the  whitest  fabric, 
so  idle  gossip  will  blacken  the  reputation  of  the  purest  man. 

13.  He  lives  long  who. lives  well;  and  time  misspent  is 
not  lived  but  lost. 

14.  "  The  green  earth  sends  her-  incense  up 

From  many  a  mountain  shrine ; 
From  folded  leaf  and  dewy  cup 

She  pours  her  sacred  wine. 
"  The  mists  above  the  morning  rills 

Else  white  as  wings  of  prayer ; 
The  altar  curtains  of  the  hills 

Are  sunset's  purple  air." 


A   SELECTION  FOR  STUDY  AND  MEMORY.  235 

15.  "  The  lettuce  is  to  me  a  most  interesting  study.  Let- 
tuce is  like  conversation :  it  must  be  crisp  and  fresh,  and  so 
sparkling  that  you  scarcely  notice  the  bitter  in  it.  Lettuce, 
like  most  talkers,  is  apt  to  run  rapidly  to  seed.  Blessed  is 
that  sort  which  comes  rapidly  to  a  head,  and  so  remains, 
like  a  few  people  I  know ;  growing  more  solid,  and  satis- 
factory, and  tender  at  the  same  time." 

16.  There  is  a  beautiful  Indian  apologue  which  says  that 
a  man  once  said  to  a  piece  of  clay,  "  What  art  thou  ?  "  The 
reply  was,  "I  am  but  a  lump  of  clay,  but  I  was  placed 
beside  a  rose  and  caught  its  fragrance." 

17.  An  apologue  is  a  story  that  is  intended  to  convey 
the  teaching  of  some  excellent  lesson. 

18.  This  apologue  teaches  us  that  if  we  associate  with 
what  is  good,  we  shall  receive  some  of  its  goodness. 


CHAPTER    LXX. 
A   SELECTION    FOR   STUDY   AND    MEMORY. 

Song  of  the  Chattahoochee.* 

Out  of  the  hills  of  Habersham, 
Down  through  the  valleys  of  Hall, 

I  hurry  amain  to  reach  the  plain. 

Run  the  rapid  and  leap  the  fall. 

Split  at  the  rock  and  together  again, 

Accept  my  bed,  or  narrow  or  wide. 

And  flee  from  folly  on  every  side, 

♦  From  "  Poems  of  Sidney  Lanier."    Copyright,  1884,  1891,  by  Mary  D.  Lanier,  and  pub- 
lished by  Charles  Scribner^s  Sons. 


236     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

With  a  lover's  pain  to  attain  the  plain, 
Far  from  the  hills  of  Habersham, 
Far  from  the  valleys  of  Hall. 

All  down  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

All  through  the  valleys  of  Hall, 
The  rushes  cried.  Abide,  ahide, 
The  wilful  waterweeds  held  me  thrall. 
The  laving  laurel  turned  my  tide. 
The  ferns  and  the  fondling  grass  said,  Stay^ 
The  dewberry  dipped  for  to  work  delay. 
And  the  little  reeds  sighed.  Abide,  abide, 

Here  in  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

Here  in  the  valleys  of  Hall. 

High  o'er  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

Yelling  the  valleys  of  Hall, 
The  hickory  told  me  manifold 
Fair  tales  of  shade,  the  poplar  tall 
Wrought  me  her  shadowy  self  to  hold. 
The  chestnut,  the  oak,  the  walnut,  the  pine, 
Overleaning,  with  flickering  meaning  and  sign, 
Said,  Pass  not,  so  cold,  these  manifold 

Deej)  shades  of  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

These  glades  in  the  valleys  of  Hall. 

And  oft  in  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

And  oft  in  the  valleys  of  Hall, 
The  Avhite  quartz  shone,  and  the  smooth  brook-stone 
Did  bar  me  of  passage  with  friendl}^  brawl. 
And  many  a  luminous  jewel  lone 


A   SELECTION  FOR  STUDY  AND  3f EMORY.  237 

— Crystals  clear  or  a-cloud  with  mist, 

Kuby,  garnet,  and  amethyst — 

Made  lures  with  the  lights  of  streaming  stone 

In  the  clefts  of  the  hills  of  Habersham, 

In  the  beds  of  the  valleys  of  Hall. 

But  oh,  not  the  hills  of  Habersham, 
And  oh,  not  the  valleys  of  Hall, 
Avail :   I  am  fain  for  to  water  the  plain. 
Downward  the  voices  of  Duty  call — 
Downward,  to  toil  and  be  mixed  with  the  main ; 
The  dry  fields  burn,  and  the  wheels  are  to  turn, 
And  a  myriad  flowers  mortally  yearn. 
And  the  lordly  main  from  beyond  the  plain 
Calls  o'er  the  hills  of  Habersham, 
Calls  through  the  valleys  of  Hall. 

—Sidney  Lanier. 

[Sidney  Lanier  (La-n5r'),  a  Southern  poet,  born  in 
Macon,  Georgia,  February  3,  1842;  died  in  Lynn,  IS'orth 
Carolina,  September  7,  1881.] 

Where  is  the  Chattahoochee  river  ?     Where  does  it  rise,  in 
what  direction  does  it  flow,  and  what  water  does  it  join  ? 
Why  should  Lanier  sing  of  this  river  ? 


For  dictionary  study  : 

amain 

wilful 

thrall 

laving 

fondling 

dewberry 

manifold 

fair 

wrought 

flickering 

glades 

bar 

brawl 

luminous 

a-cloud 

crystals 

ruby 

garnet 

amethyst 

lures 

238     TEE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

streaming       clefts  fain  main 

myriad  mortally  yearn  lordly 

Or — or  is  a  rare  expression  for  luhether—or. 

Pain,  which  sometimes  means  anxious  effort,  has  here  the 
meaning  of  haste. 

For  to  work,  for  to  water ;  for  was  once  commonly  used 
before  the  infinitive  form,  but  is  not  so  used  now. 

Order  of  study : 

1.  Read  the  poem  for  its  general  meaning  and  spirit, 
carefully  observing  the  rhythm. 

2.  Study  the  pictures  that  it  presents. 

3.  Study  it  for  its  music — rhythm,  rhyme,  alliteration. 

4.  The  lesson  of  fidelity  to  duty,  as  illustrated  in  the 
last  stanza.     The  beneficence  of  the  river. 

Suggestions  and  hints  :  Out  of  the  hills,  because  the  be- 
ginnings of  a  river  are  from  the  many  little  springs  and  rills  that 
are  in  the  mountains  ;  hurry,  run,  leap,  split,  express  just  the 
movement  of  the  river  in  such  places  ;  flee  from  folly  may  mean 
that  he  does  not  listen  to  the  voices  that  delay  him  from  the 
distant  duty. 

The  poplar  tall  leans  over  and  her  shadow  falls  into  the 
water  and  seems  to  be  held  within  its  depths  ;  the  overleaning 
chestnut,  oak,  walnut,  and  pine,  cast  watering  shadows  within 
the  water,  their  branches  waving  like  arms  that  beckon  and 
would  detain  ;  the  smooth  brook-stone  made  a  little  obstacle  to 
his  passage,  and  murmured  as  he  went  on. 

V^^hy  friendly  brawl  ?  How  did  the  luminous  Jewels  seek  to 
detain  him  ? 

Is  there  another  kind  of  rhyme  in  any  of  these  lines  than 


A  SELECTION  FOR  STUDY  AND  MEMORY.  239 

that  of  the  final  words — Hall,  fall ;  wide,  side  ;  stay,  delay, 
etc.? 

Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  letter  or  sound  at 
the  beginning  of  two  or  more  words  in  close  or  immediate  suc- 
cession ( Cent.  Diet.).  J'lee/rom/olly,  ?^?ilful  waterweeds,  Zaving 
/aurel,  are  examples.  It  was  used  in  poetry  before  the  rhyming 
of  final  words  was  introduced.  Study  the  various  examples  of 
alliteration  in  this  poem.  Do  they  add  to  the  music  of  the 
poem  ?  In  what  four  ways  is  this  poem  made  musical  ?  Does 
the  rhythm  (the  movement)  of  the  poem  suggest  the  flow  of  a 
river  ? 

What  duties  lie  before  the  stream  ?  After  it  becomes 
"  mixed  with  the  main"  what  becomes  of  its  waters  ? 

Note  :  A  short  list  of  poems,  essays,  etc.,  suitable  for  liter-, 
ary  and  grammatical  study,  and  for  composition  work,  is  given 
below.     All  of  these  may  be  found  in  very  inexpensive  editions  : 

Poems  :  Longfellow.,     The  Building  of  the  Ship, 

The  Courtship  of  Miles  Stan- 
dish, 
Evangeline. 
Whittier^         Selected    stanzas   from  "The 
Last  Walk  in  Autumn," 
The  Tent  on  the  Beach, 
Snow-Bound. 
Lowell,  The    Dandelion,    with  which 

may  be  read  a  little  poem  by 
John  Albee,  "  Dandelions," 
The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 
Ilohnes,  The  Living  Temple. 

Bryant.,  The  Flood  of  Years. 


240     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Essays,  etc.  : 

Burroughs,     Birds  and  Bees, 
Strawberries, 
A  Spray  of  Pine, 
A  Spring  Eelish. 

Hawthorne,    The  Old  Manse. 
Warner,         A-Hunting  of  the  Deer. 

Ilolmss,  My  Search  for  the  Captain. 

Thoreau,        Wild  Apples. 

Lincoln,         The  Gettysburg  Speech. 


CHAPTER     LXXI. 

THE    TENSE    OF   VERBS. 

I. 

1.  I  hear  the  rippling  of  a  little  hrooh  expresses  simple 
action  at  \hQ  present  time. 

2.  I  heard  the  rippling  of  a  little  hrooh  expresses  simple 
action  in  past  time. 

3.  I  shall  hear  the  rippling  of  a  little  hrooh  expresses 
simple  action  in  future  time. 

In  the  above  sentences  the  form  of  the  verb  only  is  changed 
to  show  the  time  of  the  action.  The  tense  of  the  verb  means 
the  time  of  the  action  as  determined  by  the  form  of  the  verb. 
Present  tense  means  present  time,  past  tense  means  j^ast  time, 
and  future  tense  means  future  time. 

What  is  the  tense  of  each  verb  in  the  following  sentences  ? 

4.  The  torrents  of  I^orway  leap  down  from  their  moun- 


THE  TENSE  OF  VERBS.  241 

tain  homes  with  plentiful  cataracts,  and  run  brief  but  glori- 
ous races  to  the  sea. 

5.  The  streams  of  England  move  smoothly  through 
green  fields  and  beside  ancient,  sleepy  towns. 

6.  Once  at  sunset  I  came  to  an  open  space  beside  the 
Stillwater  river. 

7.  It  was  early  spring,  and  the  young  leaves  on  the 
trees  were  tiny. 

8.  On  the  top  of  a  small  sumac  sat  a  veery. 

9.  I  saw  the  pointed  spots  on  his  breast,  the  swelling  of 
his  white  throat,  and  the  sparkle  of  his  eyes,  as  he  poured 
out  his  whole  heart  into  a  long,  liquid  chant. 

10.  The  slender  sapling  will  grow  into  a  graceful  lady- 
birch,  and  bend  over  the  trout-hole.  Other  generations  of 
boys  will  come  with  rod  and  line  to  draw  the  speckled 
beauties  from  their  deep,  silent  haunts.  And  I,  perhaps, 
shall  accompany  them,  for  they  may  be  my  sons  or  grand- 
sons, and  I  shall  remember  the  delights  of  my  boyhood  days. 

II. 

1.  I  have  heard  the  rippling  of  the  little  hrook  expresses 
action  as  occurring  before  the  present  time,  but  completed 
at  the  present  time. 

2.  I  had  heard  the  rippling  of  the  little  hrooh  expresses 
action  as  occurring  before  some  past  time,  but  completed  at 
that  past  time. 

3.  /  shall  have  heard  the  rippling  of  the  little  hrook 
represents  action  as  occurring  before  some  future  time,  but 
completed  at  that  future  time. 

The  forms  of  the  verb  that  denote  completed  action  are 
16 


242     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

called  perfect  forms.     When  the  form  of  the  verb  shows  that 
the  action  is  complete  at  the  present  time,  the  verb  is  of  pres- 
ent perfect  tense  ;   complete  at  some  past  time^  of  past  perfect 
tense;  complete  at  some  future  time,  of  future  perfect  tense. 
What  is  the  tense  of  each  verb  in  the  following  sentences  ? 

4.  The  brook  has  built  a  roof  of  ice  over  its  waters. 

5.  The  trees  have  covered  the  earth  with  a  blanket  of 
brown  leaves. 

6.  The  buds  of  the  horse-chestnut  trees  have  put  on 
their  waterproof  cloaks. 

7.  The  fruit  had  been  gathered  and  stored  away  in  the 
bins  in  the  farmer's  cellar. 

8.  The  flowers  had  planted  their  seeds  in  the  ground. 

9.  The  woodchucks  had  gone  to  their  long  winter  sleep. 
10.     Before  spring  comes  the  squirrel  will  have  eaten  his 

little  store  of  nuts,  the  woodchuck  will  have  consumed  his 
fat  and  will  have  grown  lean,  and  the  little  birds  that  shel- 
ter themselves  in  the  Avoods  will  have  grown  tired  of  the 

cold  and  the  storms. 

III. 

1.  lam  listening  to  the  rippling  of  a  little  hrooh  expresses 
the  action  as  continuing  or  progressing  at  the  present  time. 

2.  /  was  listening  to  the  rippling  of  a  little  hrooh  repre- 
sents the  action  as  continuing  or  progressing  in  some  past 
time. 

3.  I  shall  he  listening  to  the  rippling  of  a  little  hrooh 
represents  the  action  as  continuing  ov  progressing  in  some 
future  time. 

4.  /  have  heen  listening  is  a  progressive  action  complete 
at  the  present  time. 


THE   TENSE  OF   VERBS.  243 

5.  /  had  been  listening  is  a  progressive  action  com- 
plete at  some  past  time. 

6.  /  shall  have  been  listening  is  a  progressive  action 
complete  in  some  futm*e  time. 

The  forms  of  verbs  that  denote  progressive  action  are 
called  jprogressiwe  forms.  Their  tenses  are  named  present 
progressive,  past  progressive,  future  progressive,  present  per- 
fect progressive,  past  perfect  progressive,  amd  future  perfect 
progressive. 

What  is  the  tense  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  ? 

7.  We  are  watching  the  flight  of  a  balloon. 

8.  The  victorious  troops  are  marching  through  the 
streets ;  their  banners  are  flying,  their  drums  are  beating, 
and  the  throng  of  onlookers  is  cheering  their  every  step. 

9.  We  had  been  watching  a  little  sailboat  afar  out  on 
the  waves.  It  had  been  going  with  great  swiftness  before 
the  \vind,  when  all  at  once  the  wind  changed. 

10.  When  you  arise  at  seven  the  sun  will  have  been 
shining  a  full  hour,  the  birds  ^\ill  have  been  singing  for 
three  hours,  and  your  pony  will  have  been  calling  for  his 
master  to  come  and  give  him  his  breakfast. 


CHAPTER    LXXII. 
THE   TENSE  OF  VERBS,   Continued. 

All  statements  have  reference  to  present,  past,  or  future 
time.  The  form  of  a  verb  in  a  sentence  determines  the  time  to 
which  the  statement  has  reference. 


244    THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


The  time  as  expressed  hy  the  form  of  the  verh  is  tlie  tense 
of  the  verb.     The  word  tense  means  time. 

The  tense-form  of  the  verb  also  expresses  the  action  or  state 
as  a  simple  fact  without  reference  to  completeness  or  incom- 
pleteness {indefinite)  ;  as  complete  {perfect) ;  and  as  incom- 
plete (progressive) ;   thus — 

Indefinite  (Simple)  Peefect  Progressive 

Pres.    I  listen  I  have  listened  I  am  listening 

Past     I  listened  I  had  listened  I  was  listening 

Future  I  shall  listen  I  shall  have  listened  I  shall  be  listening 

Perfect  Progressive 
Present  I  have  been  listening 
Past        I  had  been  listening 
Future    I  shall  have  been  listening 


Learn  thoroughly  the  following  forms 


Present 

Indefinite 

Progressive 

1st  person  singular 

I  listen 

I  am  listening 

2d 

you  listen 

you  are  listening 

3d 

he  listens 

he  is  listening 

1st       "       plural 

we  listen 

we  are  listening 

2d 

you  listen 

you  are  listening 

3d 

they  listen 

they  are  listening 

Past 

1st  person  singular 

I  listened 

I  was  listening 

2d 

you  listened 

you  were  listening 

3d 

he  listened 

he  was  listening 

1st       "      plural 

we  listened 

we  were  listening 

2d 

you  listened 

you  were  listening 

3d 

they  listened 

they  were  listening 

THE   TENSE  OF   VERBS. 


245 


Future 

Indefinite               Progressive 

1st  person  singular 

I  shall  listen        I  shall  be  listening 

2d 

you  will  listen     you  ^vill  be  listening 

3d 

he  will  listen       he  will  be  listening 

1st       "      plural 

we  shall  listen      we  shall  be  listening 

2d 

you  will  listen     you  will  be  listening 

3d 

they  will  listen    they  will  be  listening 

Present 

Perfect 

1st  person  singular 

I  have  listened 

2d 

you  have  listened 

3d 

he  has  listened 

1st       "      plural 

we  have  listened 

2d 

you  have  listened 

3d 

Past 

they  have  listened 

1st  person  singular 

I  had  listened 

2d 

you  had  listened 

3d 

he  had  listened 

1st       "      plural 

we  had  listened 

2d 

you  had  listened 

3d 

Future 

they  had  listened 

1st  person  singular 

I  shall  have  listened 

2d 

you  vnW  have  listened 

3d 

he  will  have  listened 

1st       "      plural 

we  shall  have  listened 

2d 

you  will  have  listened 

3d 

they  ^vill  have  listened 

246     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GEAJUIAB. 


Present 

1st  person  singular 

2(1 

3d 

1st       "       plural 

2(1 

3d 

Past 

1st  person  singular 

2d 

3d 

1st       "      plural 

2d 

3d 

Future 
1st  person  singular 
2d 
3d 

1st      "       plural 
2d 
3d 


Perfect  Pkogressive 

I  have  been  listening 
you  have  been  listening 
he  has  been  listening 
we  have  been  listening 
you  have  been  listening 
they  have  been  listening 

I  had  been  listening 
you  had  been  listening 
he  had  been  listening 
\ye  had  been  listening 
you  had  been  listening 
they  had  been  listening 

I  shall  have  been  listening 
you  will  have  been  listening 
he  will  have  been  listening 
we  shall  have  been  listening 
you  will  have  been  listening 
they  will  have  been  listening 


Give  the  tense,  person,  and  number  of  the  following  forms, 
thus  :  /  liear,  present  indefinite  tense,  first  person,  singular 
number ;  tliey  had  heard,  past  perfect  tense,  third  person, 
plural  number  ;  you  will  have  heen  hearing,  future  perfect 
progressive  tense,  second  person,  singular  or  plural  number. 

(1)  He  lives,  (2)  she  reached,  (3)  they  will  help,  (4)  you 
have  made,  (5)  we  had  believed,  (6)  they  will  have  fought, 


THE  MODE   OF    VERBS.  247 

(7)  the  day  is  passing,  (8)  the  Turks  were  lighting,  (9)  the  man 
will  be  working,  (10)  we  have  been  wandering,  (11)  you  had 
been  playing,  (12)  the  tree  Avill  have  been  growing,  (13)  I 
finish,  (14)  he  will  have  finished,  (15)  he  will  have  been 
finishing,  (10)  they  will  cross,  (17)  they  had  been  crossing, 
(18)  they  will  have  crossed,  (19)  they  crossed,  (20)  you  write, 
(21)  he  wrote,  (22)  we  shall  write,  (28)  they  have  written, 
(24)  you  had  written,  (25)  I  shall  have  written,  (26)  we  are 
writing,  (27)  the  girls  were  writing,  (28)  the  ladies  will  be 
writing,  (29)  the  men  will  have  been  writing,  (30)  they  had 
been  singing. 

CHAPTER    LXXIII. 
THE  MODE  OF  VERBS. 

1.  We  refuse  to  listen  to  evil. 

2.  Shall  we  refuse  to  listen  to  evil  ? 

3.  If  we  refuse  to  listen  to  evil  we  shall  rebuke  those 
who  speak  it. 

4.  Though  you  speak  no  evil,  it  will  harm  you  to  listen 
to  those  who  do. 

5.  Go  and  tell  those  who  speak  evil  that  silence  is  better 
than  such  speech. 

6.  Refuse  to  listen  to  evil. 

The  first  sentence  makes  a  statement  as  a  fact.  The  second 
sentence  asks  a  direct  question. 

In  the  third  sentence,  If  ive  refuse  to  listen  to  evil  expresses 
not  a  fact  but  a  condition.  In  the  fourth  sentence,  Though  you 
speak  no  evil  expresses  something  not  as  a  fact,  but  as  a  sup- 
position. 


248     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  liftli  sentence  expresses  two  commands.  The  sixth 
sentence  expresses  an  exhortation. 

The  mode  of  a  verh  is  its  tnanner  of  expressing. 

The  preceding  sentences  illustrate  the  three  modes  :  the 
indicative,  which  is  the  mode  of  direct  assertion  or  inter- 
rogation;  the  subjunctive,  which  is  the  mode  of  supposed  or 
conditional  assertion;  and  the  imperative,  which  is  the  mode 
of  command. 

The  indicative  mode  is  the  mode  of  direct  assertion 
and  interrogation. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  the  mode  of  supposed  or 
conditional  assertion. 

The  imperative  mode  is  the  mode  of  command.  (The 
form  of  command  often  expresses  merely  a  wish  or  an  ex- 
hortation.) 

Of  what  mode  is  each  verb  in  the  following  sentences  ? 

7.  "  The  windows  of  the  wayside  inn 
Grieamed  red  with  firelight." 

8.  Are  you  so  much  offended  that  you  will  not  speak 
to  me? 

9.  Should  any  man  speak  evil  of  another  to  you,  it  is 
well  to  ask  why  he  speaks  it. 

10.  When  opportunity  knocks  at  your  door,  admit  her, 
lest  she  come  not  again. 

11.  "  Do  thy  duty ;  that  is  best ; 

Leave  unto  thy  Lord  the  rest." 

12.  "  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field,  how  they  grow ; 
they  toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin." 

^  3.     Would  that  the  king  were  here  ! 


THE   VOICE  OF  VERBS,  249 

14.  JSliould  you  meet  the  king,  be  not  afraid. 

15.  "  Oh,  square  thyself  for  use  !     A  stone  that  may 

Fit  in  the  wall  is  not  left  by  the  way." 

CHAPTER    LXXIV. 
THE  VOICE  OF  VERBS. 

1.  The  children  are  bringing  the  holly  for  Christmas. 

2.  The  holly  has  been  brought  from  the  woods. 

What  is  the  subject  nominative  of  the  first  sentence  ?  What 
words  represent  the  action  ?  AVhat  word  represents  the  doer 
of  the  action  ?  What  word  represents  the  receiver  of  the 
action  ? 

An  analysis  of  this  sentence  is  :  children,  the  doer  of  the 
action ;  are  bringing,  the  action ;  Jiolly,  the  receiver  of  the 
action.     The  doer  of  the  action  is  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

In  the  second  sentence  is  holly  the  doer  or  the  receiver  of 
the  action  of  the  verb  ? 

An  analysis  of  this  sentence  is  :  holly,  the  receiver  of  the 
action  ;  has  been  brought,  the  action. 

The  receiver  of  the  action  is  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  in  the  same  way  : 

3.  All  animals  love  and  protect  their  little  ones. 

4.  The  tender  plants  within  the  seeds  are  protected  by 
the  hard  covering  of  the  seed. 

5.  The  birds  that  sing  the  most  sweetly  are  most  loved. 

6.  "  Give  fools  their  gold,  and  knaves  their  power ; 

Let  Fortune's  bubbles  rise  and  fall ; 
Who  sows  a  field,  or  trains  a  flower, 
Or  plants  a  tree,  is  more  than  all." 


350     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAH. 

The  voice  of  a  verh  shows  'whether  the  suhject  of  the  'verb 
exerts  or  receives  the  action  of  the  verh. 

A  verh  is  of  active  voice  when  its  suhject  exerts  the 
action  expressed  hy  the  verh. 

A  verh  is  of  passive  voice  when  its  suhject  receives  the 
action  expressed  hy  the  verh. 

In  the  following  sentences  determine  of  each  verb  whether 
it  is  of  active  or  passive  voice,  and  state  the  reason  for  your 
decision  : 

7.  An  oriole  builds  her  nest  each  year  in  an  elm  tree 
near  my  window.  The  nest  is  built  very  carefully,  and  hung 
by  strong  strings  from  a  very  slender  branch.  The  wind 
swings  it  like  a  cradle.  The  nest  is  swung,  too,  by  the 
motions  of  the  birds.  Sweet  little  morning  songs  are  sung 
by  the  father  and  mother  birds  when  the  first  rays  of  the 
sun  flush  the  east.  The  parent  birds  feed  their  little  brood 
with  soft  caterpillars,  which  they  swallow  and  then  disgorge 
before  putting  them  in  the  open  beaks  of  the  nestlings.  The 
old  birds  are  very  fond  of  cherries  and  mulberries,  and  often 
the  farmers'  tender  peas  are  picked  by  little  flocks  of  these 
beautiful  birds.  But  in  return  for  the  cherries  and  peas 
which  are  taken  by  them,  they  destroy  the  caterpillars 
which  ravage  the  apple  trees. 


VERBS  AS  TRANSITIVE  OR  INTRANSITIVE.         251 

CHAPTER    LXXV. 
VERBS   AS    TRANSITIVE    OR  INTRANSITIVE. 

1.  The  children  bring  flowers. 

AVhat  is  the  subject  of  this  sentence  ?  What  is  the  verb  ? 
AVhat  is  the  object  ?  Who  are  represented  as  acting  ?  What 
word  states  the  action  ?  What  word  represents  the  receiver  of 
the  action  ?  If  I  say  The  children  bring,  do  I  express  a  com- 
plete thought  ?  Which  is  incomplete,  the  subject  or  the  predi- 
cate ?  Can  you  think  The  children  bring  without  thinking 
of  what  they  bring  ? 

The  word  tra7isitive  means  passing  over,  and  a  verb  is 
transitive  when  it  represents  an  action  as  passing  from  the  doer 
of  the  act  to  some  expressed  receiver  of  the  act.  In  the  sen- 
tence given,  children  is  the  doer  of  the  act,  and  Jlotvers  the 
receiver  of  the  act. 

2.  Honeybees  love  the  fragrant  flowers  of  the  basswood. 

3.  They  cannot  reach  the  nectar  in  the  long  flower 
tubes  of  the  red  clover. 

Are  the  verbs  in  these  sentences  transitive  ?     Explain. 

4.  Flowers  are  brought  by  the  children. 

5.  The  fragrant  flowers  of  the  basswood  are  loved  by 
the  bees. 

6.  The  nectar  in  the  long  flower  tubes  of  the  red  clover 
cannot  be  reached  by  them. 

Do  sentences  4,  5,  and  6  differ  in  meaning,  or  merely  in 
form  of  expression,  from  sentences  1,  2,  and  3  ?  What  word 
represents  the  doer  of  the  act  in  the  fourth  sentence  ?  The 
receiver  of  the  act  ?     Of  what  voice  is  the  verb  ? 


352     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


Analyze  the  fifth  sentence.,  stating  the  doer  of  the  act,  the 
receiver  of  the  act,  and  the  voice  of  the  verb.  Analyze  thus 
the  sixth  sentence.  Are  the  verbs  in  these  sentences  (4,  5,  and 
6)  transitive  ? 

A  verb  is  transitive  when  the  doer  cmd  the  receiver  of 
the  action  which  the  verh  rejpresents,  are  hoth  expressed. 

If  the  verb  be  of  active  voice,  the  doer  must  be  its  subject 
nominative,  and  the  receiver  its  direct  object.  If  the  verb  be 
of  passive  voice,  the  doer  must  be  the  object  of  the  preposition 
by  in  an  adverbial  clause  denoting  agency,  and  the  receiver 
must  be  the  subject  nominative  of  the  verb. 

A  verb  is  intransitive  when  either  the  doer  or  the  re- 
ceiver of  the  action  which  the  verb  represents  is  not  expressed. 

7.  The  hunter  shot  the  deer. 

8.  The  hunter  shot  at  the  deer. 

Of  what  is  deer  the  object  in  the  first  sentence  ?  Is,  then, 
the  verb  shot  in  this  sentence  transitive  ?  Of  what  is  deer  the 
object  in  the  second  sentence  ?  Is,  then,  shot  transitive  in  this 
sentence  ? 

It  will  be  seen  that  it  is  not  the  verb  itself  but  the  use  of 
the  verb  that  determines  whether  it  be  transitive  or  intransi- 
tive. The  verb  shot  has  a  direct  object  in  the  first  sentence, 
and  is  there  transitive.  It  has  not  a  direct  object  in  the  sec- 
ond sentence,  and  is  there  intransitive. 

A  verb  used  intransitively  and  followed  by  a  preposition 
in  the  active  voice,  when  used  in  the  passive  voice  frequently 
retains  the  preposition  with  an  adverbial  force,  thus  : 

9.  a.  The  men  shot  at  the' great  moose. 

b.  The  great  moose  had  been  shot  at  by  the  men. 


VERBS  AS  TRANSITIVE  OR  INTRANSITIVE.         253 

10.  a.  The  thieves  had  tampered  with  the  lock. 

h.  The  lock  had  been  tampered  icith  by  the  thieves. 

11.  a.  The  largest  bequest  in  this  will  provides  for  the 

maintenance  of  a  free  public  hospital. 
h.  The  maintenance  of  a  free  public  hospital  is  pro- 
vided/br  by  the  largest  bequest  in  this  will. 

Apply  the  definitions  and  principles  relating  to  transitive 
and  intransitive  verbs  to  each  of  the  numbered  sentences  in 
this  chapter.  Discuss  with  especial  care  the  verbs  in  sentences 
9,  10,  11. 

12.  We  see,  we  hear,  we  breathe,  we  speak. 

13.  We  see  the  far-stretching  sea,  we  hear  the  music  of 
its  waves  as  they  break  upon  the  shore,  we  breathe  the  cool, 
salty  air,  and  it  constrains  us  to  silence,  not  to  speech.  We 
speak  no  word. 

14.  Once  upon  a  time  there  dwelt  by  the  sea  a  little 
maid.  She  loved  the  sea.  Every  wave  that  whitened  the 
face  of  the  vast  sea  was  dear  to  her ;  every  bird  that  floated 
over  it,  every  sail  that  glided  across  it,  brought  her  a  thrill 
of  joy.  She  thought,  "  The  north  wind  fights  me ;  the  west 
wind  plays  with  me;  the  east  wind  sighs,  and  is  always 
ready  to  weep ;  the  south  Avind  loves  and  kisses  me." 

—Adapted  from  "The  Spray  Sprite,"  by  Mrs.  Thaxter. 

15.  The  bullets  of  the  enemy  severely  wounded  the 
brave  soldier. 

16.  The  brave  soldier  was  severely  wounded  by  the  bul- 
lets of  the  enemy. 

17.  The  brave  soldier  was  severely  wounded. 


254      THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

18.  The  great  blue  heron  spread  his  wings  and  grace- 
fully flew  away. 

19.  The  oil  spread  over  the  waves  and  quieted  their  fury. 

20.  The  Chinese  fly  kites  of  many  curious  designs ;  birds, 
flowers,  dragons,  all  fly  in  the  breezes  that  blow  over  that 
orient  land,  and  men  and  children  alike  take  delight  in  the 
sport. 

CHAPTER    LXXVI. 
THE  INFINITIVE  FORMS. 

An  infinitive  is  a  verb-forTn  consisting  of  the  prepo- 
sition to  followed  hy  the  present  or  perfect  tense  form  of  a 
verb.  It  has  the  nature  of  the  verh  and  that  of  some  other 
part  of  speech — the  noun.,  the  adjective.,  or  the  adverh. 

1.  I  remember  the  black  wharves  and  the  slips, 

And  the  sea-tides  tossing  free. — Longfellow. 

2.  To  remember  our  friends  is  one  of  the  delights  of 
life. 

3.  I  wish  to  remember  this  beautiful  poem,  "  My  Lost 
Youth." 

4.  I  am  glad  to  have  remembered  the  poem  so  well. 

5.  The  wish  to  be  remembered  is  common  to  all  men. 

6.  My  mother  is  pleased  to  have  been  remembered  by 
you. 

The  infinitive  forms  in  these  sentences  are  :  to  remember, 
to  have  remembered,  to  be  remembered,  to  have  been  remembered. 
Like  a  verb,  infinitive  forms  may  have  a  subject,  govern  an 
object,  and  be  modified  ;  while  in  a  sentence  they  perform  the 
office  of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 


THE  INFINITIVE  FORMS.  255 

The  first  sentence  above  illustrates  remember  as  a  verb  ;  the 
second  illustrates  the  present  active  infinitive  form,  to  remem- 
her,  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  is,  and  as  governing  the  noun 
friends ;  the  third  illustrates  the  infinitive  form,  to  remeinber, 
as  the  object  of  a  verb.  Does  it  take  any  object  ?  The  fourth 
sentence  illustrates  the  use  of  the  perfect  active  infinitive  iorm, 
to  have  remembered,  as  an  adverb,  as  governing  an  object,  and 
as  modified  by  an  adverb.  What  does  it  modify,  what  is  its 
object,  and  by  what  adverb  is  it  modified  ?  The  fifth  sentence 
represents  the  present  passive  infinitive  form,  to  be  remembered, 
as  an  adjective.  What  does  it  modify  ?  The  sixth  sentence 
illustrates  the  use  of  the  perfect  passive  infinitive  form,  to 
have  been  remembered,  as  an  adverb.     What  does  it  modify  ? 

Note  :  In  accordance  with  the  best  usage  an  adverb  should 
never  be  so  placed  as  to  separate  the  parts  of  an  infinitive  form. 
It  should  be  placed  before  the  infinitive  form,  or  directly  after 
the  form  or  its  object.     Thus  : 

You  hoAje  had  time  to  carefully  prepare  your  lesson,  is 
incorrect,  and  should  be,  You  have  had  time  to  prepare  care- 
fiilly  your  lesson. 

Place  correctly  in  each  of  the  following  infinitive  phrases 
the  adverb  that  follows  it : 

7.  To  do  one's  duty — faithfully. 

8.  To  observe  the  rights  of  others — carefully. 

9.  To  have  borne  suffering — patiently. 

10.  To  be  told  our  faults — kindly. 

11.  To  treat  all  people — courteously. 

Use  suitable  adverbs  in  connection  with  the  following 
phrases  : 


256     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

12.  To  have  fastened . 

13.  To  have  spoken . 

14.  To  have  been  treated . 

15.  To  destroy  the  property  of  others . 

16.  To  try  to  improve . 

Give  complete  sentences  containing  the  above  phrases. 

Infinitive  forms  are  classified  as  simple — when  the  pres- 
ent, or  root,  form  of  the  verb  follows  the  preposition  to; 
and  compound — when  any  other  form  of  the  verb  follows  it. 
They  have  two  tenses — present  2l\\^  present  perfect^  and  may 
have  active  Sind  passive  voice. 

The  following  are  the  infinitive  forms  of  the  verb  remember  : 
Active  Passive 

I^resent 
to  remember  to  be  remembered 

Present  Perfect 

to  have  remembered  to  have  been  remembered 

In  parsing  an  infinitive  form,  state  : 
I.     From  what  verb  it  is  formed. 
11.     Its  classification — simple  or  compound. 
III.     Its  tense — present  or  present  perfect. 
lY.     Its  voice — active  or  passive. 

Y.     Its  use — as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb — and 
the  word  to  which  it  is  related  by  that  use. 


THE  PARTICIPLE.  257 


CHAPTER    LXXVII. 
THE  PARTICIPLE. 

A  participle  is  a  word  formed  from  a  verb,  andpo/r- 
takhig  of  the  nature  of  a  verb  and  of  that  of  some  other  part 
of  speech. 

The  Participle  as  a  Verbal  Adjective. 

1.  The  children,  breaking  the  string,  let  the  kite  sail 
away. 

In  this  sentence  breaking  is  formed  from  the  verb  break  ;  it 
expresses  action  exerted ;  it  governs  an  object,  string ;  it 
modifies  cliildren.  Breaking  is  a  present  active  participle, 
partaking  of  the  nature  both  of  the  verb  and  adjective. 

2.  The  plate,  broken  into  many  pieces,  lay  upon  the 
floor. 

In  this  sentence  broken  is  formed  from  the  word  break ;  it 
expresses  action  received  ;  it  modifies  plate.  Broken  is  a  past 
passive  participle,  partaking  of  the  nature  both  of  the  verb  and 
adjective. 

Analyze  in  the  same  way  the  participles  in  the  following 
sentences  : 

3.  Notice  the  delicate  perfume  borne  from  the  blossom- 
ing willows. 

4.  The  bees,  bearing  honey,  fly  straight  from  the  wil- 
lows to  the  hive. 

5.  "  Covering  many  a  rod  of  ground 

Lay  the  timber  all  around." 
17 


258     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

6.  " there  Avas  heard 

The  sound  of  hammers,  blow  on  blow, 
Knocking  away  the  shores  and  spurs." 

7.  The  books,  lying  upon  his  desk,  and  the  pictures, 
hung  upon  the  wall,  showed  the  taste  of  a  scholar  and 
artist. 

Participles^  when  placed  immediately  hefore  the  noun 
which  they  modify^  lose  the  nature  of  the  verb  and  retain  that 
of  the  adjective  only^  thus ; 

8.  The  breaking  waves  dashed  high. 

9.  The  broken  plate  lay  on  the  floor. 

10.     The  blossoming  willows  send  forth  a  delicious  per- 
fume. 

II. 

The  Participle  as  a  Verbal  Noun. 

1.  Guiding  the  canoes  through  the  rapids  requires  quick 
judgment  and  a  firm  Avrist. 

In  this  sentence  guiding  is  formed  from  the  verb  guide; 
it  governs  an  object,  canoe  ;  it  is  the  subject  nominative  of  the 
verb  is.  Guiding  is  a  participle,  partaking  of  the  nature  both 
of  the  verb  and  noun. 

2.  Drilling  raw  recruits  into  trained  soldiers  requires 
much  time. 

In  this  sentence  drilling  is  a  participle  formed  from  the 
verb  drill;  it  governs  an  object,  recruits  ;  it  is  the  subject 
nominative  of  requires.  Drillijig  is  a  participle,  partaking  of 
the  nature  both  of  the  verb  and  noun. 

Analyze,  in  the  same  way,  the  participles  in  the  following 
sentences : 


THE  PARTICIPLE.  259 


3.  The  President  is  desirous  of  establishing  peace. 

4.  Not  the  fear  of  the  punishment,  but  the  fear  of  doing 
wrong,  should  restrain  us. 

5.  Laughing  and  singing  frighten  away  sorrow. 

Participles^  when  preceded  hy  the  article  and  followed  hy 
the  preposition  of,  lose  tlie  nature  of  the  verb  amd  hecome 
nouns^  thus : 

6.  "  I  found  Him  in  the  shining  of  the  stars, 

I  marked  Him  in  the  flowering  of  His  fields." 

III. 
The  Adverbial  Force  of  the  Pa/rticiple. 

1.  The  brook  ran  rippling  and  purling  on  its  way. 

In  this  sentence  rippling  and  purling  describe  the  action 
of  the  brook  rather  than  the  brook  itself ;  they  modify  ran 
rather  than  hrooh.     They  have,  then,  an  adverbial  force. 

2.  She  stood  wringing  her  hands  in  her  grief. 

3.  The  children  came  talking  and  laughing. 

After  verbs  of  condition  and  motion  the  p^articiple  fre- 
quently qualifies  tJie  verb  as  well  as  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

lY. 

Participles  are  classed  as  simple — formed  without  any 
auxiliary ;  and  compound — formed  by  the  use  of  the  parti- 
ciples of  the  auxiliary  verbs  be  and  have.  They  have  three 
tenses — -present^  past,  and  perfect,  and  may  have  active  and 
passive  voice. 


260     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  following  are  the  participles  of  the  verb  remember  : 
Active  Passive 

Present        remembering  being  remembered 

Past  remembered 

Perfect        having  remembered     having  been  remembered 

In  parsing  a  participle,  state  : 

I.  From  what  verb  it  is  formed. 

II.  Its  classification — simj^le  or  compound. 

III.  Its  tense — present,  past,  or  perfect. 

IV.  Its  voice — active  or  passive. 

Y.    Its  use — as  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb,  and  the  word 
to  which  it  is  related  by  that  use. 


CHAPTER    LXXVIII. 
POTENTIAL  VERB  PHRASES. 

Certain  verhs^  can,  could,  may,  might,  must,  should, 
would,  expressing  power.,  possibility^  obligation^  or  permis- 
sion, are  used  as  auxiliaries  with  the  infinitive  forms  of  other 
verbs  in  verb  phrases  called  potential  verb  phrases. 

In  these  phrases  the  preposition  to  of  the  infinitive  form  is 
suppressed. 

While  can  is  considered  a  form  of  present  tense  and  could 
of  past  tense,  may  of  present  tense  and  might  of  past  tense, 
must  of  both  present  and  past  tense,  should  the  past  tense  of 
shall,  and  would  the  past  tense  of  will,  the  tense  of  the  verb 
phrase  is  not  expressed  by  these  auxiliaries. 


POTENTIAL    VERB  PHRASES.  261 

The  tense  of  the  potential  verh  phrase  is  deternmined  hy  the 
infinitive,  hy  some  adverb  of  time^  or  hy  its  relation  to  tlie 
rest  of  the  sentence. 

1.  /  ca/n  see  you  no\o  means  /  am  able  now  to  see  you., 
the  tense  hfsiw^^  present. 

2.  /  can  see  you  to-morrow  means  /  shall  he  ahle  to- 
inorrow  to  see  you.,  the  tense  \yid\VL^  future. 

3.  /  may  have  heard  is  a  possibility — modification  of  a 
simple  past  tense,  I  heard  yesterday,  or  of  a  present  perfect 
tense,  I  have  heard  at  some  time  before  now. 

If  could  or  might  be  substituted  in  each  of  these  sentences, 
the  definiteness,  but  not  the  tense,  of  the  phrase  will  be  changed. 
Could  expresses  greater  indefiniteness  than  ca7i,  might  than 
may,  should  than  shall,  and  would  than  will. 

Determine  the  tense  of  the  potential  verb  phrase  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences  : 

4.  I  may  be  helping  you  by  this  explanation. 

5.  I  may  help  you  to-morrow. 

6.  I  may  have  helped  you  in  the  completion  of  your 
task. 

7.  I  may  have  helped  you  yesterday. 

8.  I  might  hear  the  roaring  of  the  ocean  if  I  were 
nearer  it. 

9.  I  might  hear  the  roaring  of  the  ocean  if  the  wind 
should  blow  from  the  east. 

10.  I  might  have  heard  the  roaring  of  the  ocean  yester- 
day. 

11.  I  might  have  been  rich  if  my  ships  had  not  been 
shipwrecked 


262     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

12.  I  sat  where  I  might  hear  the  roaring  of  the  waves. 

13.  I  must  be  busy. 

14.  I  must  do  this  to-morrow. 

15.  I  must  have  broken  the  pitcher  yesterday. 

16.  I  must  have  walked  this  road  a  hundred  times. 

17.  I  should  tell  you  (ought  to  tell  you). 

18.  I  should  tell  you  if  it  were  best. 

19.  I  should  tell  you  to-morrow  if  I  should  be  given 
permission. 

20.  I  should  have  told  you  before  now  (ought  to  have 
told). 

21.  I  should  have  told  you  yesterday  if  it  had  been  per- 
mitted. 

CHAPTER    LXXIX. 
THE  CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  an  orderly  arrangement 
of  its  different  forms  to  exjpress  voice,  mode,  tense,  person  and 
number.  A  verb  is  said  to  have  the  person  and  number  of 
its  subject  nominative.  Conjugation  includes  the  potential 
verb  phrases  and  the  infinitive  and  participle  verb  forms. 

A  conij)lete  verb  is  one  that  lacks  no  form  of  a 
full  conjugation. 

A  defective  verb  is  one  that  is  lacking  in  some  forms 
of  a  full  conjugation. 

An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  that  is  used  to  assist  in  the 
formation  of  the  conjugation  of  other  verbs. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  present  (that 
used  with   the  pronoun  I  in  the  present  tense,  indicative 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS.  263 

mode),  the  past  (that  used  with  the  pronoun  I  in  the  past 
tense,  indicative  mode),  and  the  present  and  past  participles. 

A  regular,  or  weak,  verb  is  one  that  forms  its  past 
tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  -d  or  -ed  to  the  present. 
Verbs  of  more  than  one  syllable  change  a  final  y  to  i  before 
adding  -ed. 

An  irregular,  or  st/rong,  verb  is  one  that  forms  its 
past  tense  or  past  participle  by  a  change  either  in  the 
spelling  or  the  pronunciation  of  the  body  of  the  word. 
This  class  includes  those  verbs  in  which  the  added  d  has 
been  changed  to  t. 

A  redundant  verb  is  one  that  has  more  than  one 
form  for  its  past  tense  or  past  participle. 

Note  :  In  the  modern  use  of  English,  the  pronoun  you  is 
universally  used  for  both  the  singular  and  plural  forms.  The 
conjugations  of  verbs  given  in  this  book  have  been  made  to 
conform  to  this  usage,  the  singular  form,  tliou,  being  placed  in 
brackets. 

CONJUGATION   OF    THE   AUXILIARY    VERBS. 

In  the  conjugation  of  a  verb,  shall  and  will,  should  and 
would,  have  and  had,  and  the  several  tenses  of  the  verb  he, 
are  used  as  auxiliaries. 


Shall  and  Will. 

1. 

2. 
3. 

Singula/r 
I  shall,  wiU                                     1. 
you  will,  shall  (thou  Avilt,  shalt)     2. 
he  will,  shall                                     3. 

Plural 
we  shall,  will 
you  will,  shall 
they  will,  shall 

264     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Should  and  Would. 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  should,  would  1.    we  should,  would 

2.  you  would,  should  (thou  wouldst,   2.     you  would,  should 

3.  he  would,  should  shouldst)    3.    they  would,  should 


Have. 
Present  Tense. 


1.  I  have 

2.  you  have  (thou  hast) 

3.  he  has 


Past  Tense. 

1.  I  had 

2.  you  had  (thou  hadst) 

3.  he  had 

Future  Tense. 

1.  I  shall  {or  will)  have  1. 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  have  (thou   2. 

wilt  [or  shalt]  have) 

3.  he  will  {or  shall)  have  3. 


1.  we  have 

2.  you  have 

3.  they  have 

1.  we  had 

2.  you  had 

3.  they  had 


we  shall  {or  will)  have 
you  will  {or  shall)  have 

they  will  {or  shall)  have 


Be. 

The  forms  given  under  the  verb  he  are  from  three  verbs, 
he,  am,  and  was,  that  once  were  separate  verbs  but  of  the 
same  meaning. 

Present  Tense.       Past.   Pres.  Part.   Past  Part. 
Prin.  Parts,      be,  am  was  being  been 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS.        265 


INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense. 

Singular  Plural  Singular  Plural 


1.  I  am  1.  we  are 

2.  you  are         2.  you  are 
(thou  art) 


3.  he  is 


3.  they  are 


1.  I  was  1.  we  were 

2.  you  were     2.  you  were 
(thou  wast, 

or  wert) 

3.  he  was         3.  they  were 


Singular 
I  shall  (or  will)  be 
you   will   {or  shall)   be 
(thou  wilt  [or  shalt]  be) 
he  will  {or  shall)  be 


Future  Tense. 

Plural 

1.  we  shall  {or  will)  be 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  be 


3.     they  will  {or  shall)  be 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular  Plural 

I  have  been  1.     we  have  been 

you  have  been  2.     you  have  been 

(thou  hast  been) 
he  has  been  3.     they  have  been 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I  had  been  1.    we  had  been 

2.  you  had  been  (thou  hadst  been)    2.     you  had  been 

3.  he  had  been  3.     they  had  been 


266     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular  Plural 

1.  I  shall  {or  will)  have  been    1.  we  shall  {or  will)  have  been 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  have    2.  yoa    will  {or    shall)    have 

been    (thou    wilt    [or  been 

shalt]  have  been) 

3.  he  will    {or    shall)    have    3.  they  will  {or  shall)  have 

been  been 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  usually,  but  not  always,  in- 
troduced by  conjunctions  implying  condition,  concession,  or 
purpose — if,  tliougli,  sinless,  except,  lest,  that ;  but  these  con- 
junctions are  not  a  part  of  the  verb. 


Present  Tense. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular             Plural 

1. 

I  be 

1.  we  be 

1.  I  were          1.  we  were 

2. 

you  be 

2.  you  be 

2.  you  were      2.  you  were 

(thou  be) 

(thou  wert) 

3. 

he  be 

3.  they  be 

3.  he  were        3.  they  Avere 

Future  Tense. 

Singular 

Plural 

1. 

I  should  {or  would)  be 

1.     we  should  {or  would)  be 

2. 

you  would 

{or  should) 

2.     you  would  {or  should)  be 

be  (thou 

shouldst  [or 

wouldst]  be) 

3.     he  would  {or  should)  be        3.     they  would  {or  should)  be 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  AUXILIARY   VERBS.  267 


Pkesent  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular                                      Plicral 

1. 

I  have  been                                 1.     we  have  been 

2. 

you  have  been  (thou  have          2.    you  have  been 

been) 

3. 

he  have  been                               3.     they  have  been 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

(The  forms  are  those  of  the  Indicative  Past  Perfect). 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular  Plural 

1.  I    should    {or    would)  1.     we  should  {or  would) 

have  been  have  been 

2.  you  would  {or  should)  2.     you  would  {or  should) 

have     been    (thou  have  been 

wouldst  [or  shouldst] 
have  been) 

3.  he    would   {or   should)  3.    they  would  (c*/*  should) 

have  been  have  been 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Singular  and  Plural 
be 

INFINITIVE  FORMS. 

Present  Tense.  Perfect  Tense. 


to  be 

to  have  been 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. 

Past.                     Perfect. 

being 

been                  having  been 

268     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

Note  :  The  verb  do,  in  its  present  and  past  forms,  is  used  as 
an  auxiliary  in  the  active  voice  in  simple  interrogative  sentences, 
and  in  emphatic  declarative  and  imperative  sentences,  thus  : 

INTERROGATIVE  FORM  OF  THE  INDICATIVE  MODE. 


Sing. 


Pli 


Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Present. 

Past. 

1. 

do  I  hear  ? 

1. 

did  I  hear  ? 

2. 

do  you  hear  ? 

2. 

did  you  hear  ? 

(dost  thou  hear  ?) 

(didst  thou  hear  ?) 

3. 

does  he  hear  ? 

3. 

did  he  hear  ? 

1. 

do  we  hear  ? 

1. 

did  we  hear  ? 

2. 

do  you  hear  ? 

2. 

did  you  hear  ? 

3. 

do  they  hear  ? 

3. 

did  they  hear  ? 

VTIG  FORM  OF  THE  INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present. 

Past. 

1. 

I  do  hear 

1. 

I  did  hear 

2. 

you  do  hear 

2. 

you  did  hear 

(thou  dost  hear) 

(thou  didst  hear) 

3. 

he  does  hear 

3. 

he  did  hear  ' 

1. 

we  do  hear 

1. 

we  did  hear 

2. 

you  do  hear 

2. 

you  did  hear 

3. 

they  do  hear 

3. 

they  did  hear 

TIC 

1  FORM  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE  3I0DE. 

Present. 

Past. 

1. 

I  do  hear 

1. 

I  did  hear 

2. 

you  do  hear  (thou 

2. 

you  did  hear  (thou 

dost  hear) 

didst  hear) 

3. 

he  do  hear 

3. 

He  did  hear 

COMPLETE  CONJUGATION  OF  A  REGULAR  VERB. 


Present. 
Plu.  1.     we  do  hear 

2.  you  do  hear 

3.  they  do  hear 


Past. 

1.  we  did  hear 

2.  you  did  hear 

3.  they  did  hear 


EMPHATIC  FORM  OF  THE  IMPERATIVE  MODE. 
do  hear 
The   form   of  the  verb   following   the  auxiliary   do  is 
the  infinitive  with  to  suppressed. 

COMPLETE  CONJUGATION  OF  A  REGULAR  VERB. 
Model:  Love. 
Present        Past      Pres.  Part.  Past  Part. 
Prin.  Parts.         love  loved  loving  loved 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense. 


ACTIVE    VOICE. 

PASSIVE    VOICE. 

Sing. 

1. 

I  love 

1. 

I  am  loved 

2. 

you  love 

2. 

you  are  loved 

3. 

he  loves 

3. 

he  is  loved 

Plu. 

1. 

we  love 

1. 

Ave  are  loved 

2. 

you  love 

2. 

you  are  loved 

3. 

they  love 

Past  Ten 

3. 

8E. 

they  are  loved 

Sing. 

1. 

I  loved 

1. 

I  was  loved 

2. 

you  loved 

2. 

you  were  loved 

3. 

he  loved 

3. 

he  was  loved 

Plu. 

1. 

we  loved 

1. 

we  were  loved 

2. 

you  loved 

2. 

you  were  loved 

3. 

they  loved 

3. 

they  were  loved 

370     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


Future  Tense. 
active  voice. 

Sing.  1.  I  shall  {or  will)  love 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  love 

3.  he  will  {or  shall)  love 
Plu.    1.  we  shall  {or  will)  love 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  love 

3.  they  will  {or  shall)  love 

1 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 


Sing.  1. 

2. 


Flu. 


Sing.  1. 

2. 

3. 
Plu.   1. 

2. 

3. 


I  shall  {or  will)  be  loved 

2.  you  will  (^T'  shall)  be  loved 

3.  he  will  {or  shall)  be  loved 

1.  we  shall  {or  will)  be  loved 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  be  loved 

3.  they  will  {or  shall)  be  loved 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


I  have  loved 
you  have  loved 
he  has  loved 
we  have  loved 
you  have  loved 
they  have  loved 


1.  I  have  been  loved 

2.  you  have  been  loved 

3.  he  has  been  loved 

1.  we  have  been  loved 

2.  you  have  been  loved 

3.  they  have  been  loved 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 


I  had  loved 
you  had  loved 
he  had  loved 
Ave  had  loved 
you  had  loved 
they  had  loved 


1.  I  had  been  loved 

2.  you  had  been  loved 

3.  he  had  been  loved 

1.  we  had  been  loved 

2.  you  had  been  loved 

3.  they  had  been  loved 


COMPLETE  CONJUGATION  OF  A  REGULAR    VERB.    271 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 

ACTIVE  VOICE.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Sing.  1.  I  shall  {or  will)  have  loved 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  have  loved 

3.  he  will  {or  shall)  have  loved 
Plu.  1.  we  shall  {or.  will)  have  loved 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  have  loved 

3.  they  Avill  {or  shall)  have  loved 

1.  I  shall  {or  will)  have  been  loved 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  have  been  loved 

3.  he  will  {or  shall)  have  been  loved 

1.  Ave  shall  {or  will)  have  been  loved 

2.  you  will  {or  shall)  have  been  loved 

3.  they  Avill  {or  shall)  have  been  loved 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense.        passive  voice. 
1. 

2.  you  love  2. 

3.  he  love  3. 
Plu.  1 .     we  love  1. 

2.  you  love  2. 

3.  they  love  3. 

Past  Tense. 
Sing.  1.     I  loved  1. 

2.  you  loved  2. 

3.  he  loved  3. 
Phi.   1.  we  loved  1. 

2.  you  loved  2. 

3.  they  loved 


active  voice. 
Sing.  1.     I  love 


I  be  loved 
you  be  loved 
he  be  loved 
we  be  loved 
you  be  loved 
they  be  loved 

I  were  loved 
you  were  loved 
he  were  loved 
we  were  loved 
you  were  loved 
3.     thev  were  loved 


273     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 


Future  Tense. 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Singular 

1.  I   should    {or  would) 

love 

2.  you  would  {or  should) 

love 

3.  he  would  {or  should) 

love 

Plural 

1.  we  should  {or  would) 

love 

2.  you  would  {or  should) 

love 

3.  they  would  (t*/*  should) 

love 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Singular 

1.  I   should   {or  would) 

be  loved 

2.  you  would  {or  should) 

be  loved 

3.  he  would  {or  should) 

be  loved 

Plural 

1.  we  should  {or  would) 

be  loved 

2.  you  would  {or  should) 

be  loved 

3.  they  would  {or  should) 

be  loved 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 


I,  you,  he ;  we,  you,  they, 
have  loved 


I,  you,   he;  we,  you,  they 
have  been  loved 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 


I,  you,  he ;  we,  you,  they, 
had  loved 


I,  you,  he;   we,  you,  they, 
had  been  loved 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 


I,  you,  he ;  we,  you,  they, 
should  {or  would)  have 
loved 


I,  you,  he;  we,  you,  they, 
should  {or  would)  have 
been  loved 


THE  PARSING   OF  A    VERB.  273 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

ACTIVE  VOICE.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

love  I  be  loved 

INFINITIVE  FORMS. 

ACTIVE  VOICE.  PbESENT    TeNSE.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

to  love  I  to  be  loved 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
to  have  loved  |  to  have  been  loved 

PARTICIPLES. 

active  voice.  Present.  passive  voice. 

loving  I  being  loved 

Past. 
loved 

Perfect. 
having  loved  |  having  been  loved 


CHAPTER   LXXX. 
THE  PARSING   OF  A    VERB, 

In  parsing  a  verb  we  state  in  order  : 
I.     Whether  it  is  regular  or  irregular. 
II.     From  what  verb  derived,  and  the  principal  parts. 
III.     Whether   transitive  or  intransitive;   if  transitive, 
what  word  represents  the  doer,  and  what  the  receiver,  of 
the  action. 

lY.     If  it  have  voice,  whether  it  is  of  active  or  passive 
voice. 

V.     Its  mode,  tense,  person,  and  number. 
YI.    Its  subject. 


374     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

In  the  earlier  exercises  in  parsing,  the  reason  for  each 
statement  should  be  given. 

Parse  the  verbs  in  the  following  : 

Once  upon  a  time  a  mighty  battle  was  being  waged  in  a 
plain.  There  was  a  great  cloud  of  dust,  and  the  sound  of 
shrieks  and  of  swords  striking  upon  swords  and  shields. 
The  king's  son  was  being  driven  back,  beaten.  On  the 
edge  of  his  line  there  was  a  coward.  He  did  not  call  him- 
self a  coward,  but  he  looked  at  the  sword  in  his  hands  and 
said  to  himself,  "  Of  course  I  can  do  nothing  with  this  old 
dull  blade.  If  I  had  the  sword  that  the  king's  son  has  I 
might  do  much."  So,  being  a  coward,  he  broke  the  sword 
that  he  had,  and  threw  the  parts  away.  Then  he  stole 
aAvay  from  the  field.  The  king's  son  was  pressed  hard. 
His  sword  was  struck  from  his  hand.  He  was  wounded ; 
and,  retreating,  he  came  to  the  place  where  the  coward  had 
thrown  away  his  sword.  He  snatched  the  broken  hilt  from 
the  sand,  and,  resolving  to  do  his  mightiest  with  this  wea- 
pon, he  once  more  gave  the  battle  cry  and  rushed  against 
the  enemy.  And,  lo !  his  courage  saved  the  day.  He  drove 
the  enemy  back,  and  won  a  noble  victory. 

Opportunity. 

This  I  beheld,  or  dreamed  it  in  a  dream : 
There  spread  a  cloud  of  dust  along  a  plain ; 
And  underneath  the  cloud,  or  in  it,  raged 
A  furious  battle,  and  men  yelled,  and  swords 
Shocked  upon  swords  and  shields.     A  prince's  banner 
Wavered,  then  staggered  backward,  hemmed  by  foes. 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  IRREGULAR    VERBS.       275 

A  crav^en  hung  along  the  battle's  edge 
And  thought :  "  Had  I  a  sword  of  keener  steel — 
That  true  blade  that  the  king's  son  bears — but  this 
Blunt  thing ! "     He  snapt  and  flung  it  from  his  hand, 
And  lowering  crept  away,  and  left  the  field. 
Then  came  the  king's  son,  wounded,  sore  bested, 
And  weaponless,  and  sav\^  the  broken  sword, 
Hilt-buried  in  the  dry  and  trodden  sand, — 
And  ran  and  snatched  it,  and  with  battle  shout 
Lifted  afresh,  he  hewed  the  enemy  down, 
And  saved  a  great  cause  that  heroic  day. 

— Edward  Rowland  Sill. 

[Edward  Rowland  Sill,  an  American  poet,  born  in  Wind- 
sor, Connecticut,  1841 ;  died  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  February 

27,  1887.] 

Why  is  this  poem  called  "  Opportunity "  ?    What  is  the 
great  lesson  that  it  teaches  us  ? 


CHAPTER    LXXXI. 
ALPHABETICAL   LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

When  a  verb  has  more  than  one  irregular  form  for  the  past 
tense  or  the  past  participle,  the  preferable  form  is  placed  first. 
When  a  regular  form  of  the  past  tense  or  perfect  participle  is 
also  in  use,  the  letter  R.  is  placed  opposite  the  part.  A  star  fol- 
lowing the  R.  indicates  that  the  regular  form  is  tlie  preferred 
form  ;  otherwise  the  irregular  form  is  the  preferred  one. 


276     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 


Present. 
abide 

Past. 
abode 

Past  Partici;ple. 
abode 

am  {see  be) 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

awake 
be,  am 

awoke,  B. 
was 

awoke,  E. 
been 

bear 

bore 
bare 
bore 
bare 
beat 

j  borne 
(  born 
borne 

(to  bring  forth) 
bear 

(to  carry) 
beat 

j  beaten 
1  beat 

begin 
behold 

began 
beheld 

begun 
beheld 

bend 

bent 

bent 

bereave 

bereft,  K.^ 

bereft,  E.^ 

beseech 
bet 

besought 
bet,  R. 

besought 
bet,  E. 

bid 

j  bade 
Ibid 

j  bidden 
(bid 

bind 

bound 

bound 

bite 

bit 

bitten 
'  bit 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

bless 

blest,  E.  * 

blest,  E.  -"- 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break 

broke 

broken 

breed 

bred 

bred 

bring 
build 

brought 
built,  E. 

brought 
built,  E. 

ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  IRREGULAR    VERBS.       277 


Present. 

Pad. 

Past  Participle. 

burn 

burnt,  E  * 

burnt,  E.  ^ 

burst 

burst 

burst 

buy 

bought 

bought 

can 

could 

cast 

cast 

c^st 

catch 

caught 

caught 

chide 

chid 

j  chidden 
(chid 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cleave 

cleft 
1  clove 

cleft,  E. 
(  cloven 

(to  split) 

cling 

clung 

clung 

clothe 

clad,  E.  * 

clad,  E.  * 

come 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

cost 

creep 

crept 

crept 

crow 

crew,  E.  * 

crowed 

cut 

cut 

cut 

dare 

durst,  E.  * 

dared 

deal 

dealt 

dealt 

dig 

dug,  E. 

dug,  E. 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

dream 

dreamt,  E.  * 

dreamt,  E.  * 

drink 

drank 

drunk 

drive 

drove 

driven 

dwell 

dwelt,  E. 

dwelt,  E. 

eat 

ate 

eaten 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

378     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


Present. 
feed 

Past. 
fed 

Past  Participle. 
fed 

feel 

felt 

felt 

fight 
find 

fought 
found 

fought 
found 

flee 

fled 

fled 

fling 

fly 

flung 
flew 

flung 
flown 

forget 
forsake 

forgot 
forsook 

j  forgotten 
(  forgot 
forsaken 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

gild 
gird 

got 

gilt,  K.  * 
girt,  K. 

(got 

1  gotten 
gilt,R.* 
girt,  E. 

give 

go 

grind 

gave 
went 
ground 

given 

gone 

ground 

grow 
hang 
have 

grew 
hung,  R. 
had 

grown 
hung,  E. 
had 

hear 

heard 

heard 

heave 

hove,  E.  * 

hove,  E.  * 

hew 

hewed 

hewn,  E.  * 

hide 

hid 

j  hidden 
(hid 

hit 

hit 

hit 

hold 
hurt 

held 
hurt 

held 
hurt 

ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  IRREGULAR    VERBS.       379 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participle. 

keep 

kept 

kept 

kneel 

knelt,  K. 

knelt,  R. 

knit 

knit,  K.  * 

knit,  R.  * 

know 

knew 

known 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

leap 

leapt,  R.  * 

leapt,  R.  * 

learn 

learnt,  E.  * 

learnt,  R.  * 

leave 

left 

left 

lend 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

let 

lie  (to  recline) 

lay 

lain 

lose  . 

lost 

lost 

make 

made 

made 

may 

might 

mean 

meant 

meant 

meet 

met 

met 

mow 

mowed 

mown,  R  * 

pass 

past,  R  * 

past,  R.* 

pay 

paid 

paid 

pen  (to  inclose) 

pent,  R.* 

pent,  R  * 

put 

put 

put 

quit 

quit,  R. 

quit,  R. 

rap 

rapt,  R.* 

rapt,  R  * 

read 

read 

read 

rend 

rent 

rent 

rid 

rid 

rid 

ride 

rode 

ridden 

ring 

rang 

rung 

280     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

rise 

rose 

risen 

rive 

rived 

riven,  K.* 

run 

ran 

run 

saw 

sawed 

sawn,  R* 

say 

said 

said 

see 

saw 

seen 

seek 

sought 

sought 

sell 

sold 

sold 

send 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

set 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

shall 

should 

shear 

sheared 

shorn,  E.* 

shed 

shed 

shed 

shine 

shone 

shone 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

shoot 

shot 

shot 

shOAV 

showed 

shown,  R. 

shrink 

j  shrank 
1  shrunk 

j  shrunk 
(  shrunken 

shut 

shut 

shut 

sing 

(  sang 
1  sung 

sung 

sink 

sank 

sunk 

sunk 
sunken 

sit 

sat 

sat 

slay 

slew 

slain 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

slide 

slid 

j  slid 
slidden 

ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  IRREGULAR    VERBS.      281 


Present. 

Pad. 

Past  Participle. 

sling 

slung 

slung 

slink 

slunk 

slunk 

slip 

slipt,  R.* 

slipt,  R  * 

slit 

slit,  R. 

slit,  R. 

smell 

smelt,  R.* 

smelt,  R.* 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

sow 

sowed 

sown,  R.* 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

speed 

sped 

sped 

spend 

spent 

spent 

spill 

spilt,  R.* 

spilt,  R.* 

spin 

spun 

spun 

spit 

(spit 
I  spat 

spit 

split 

split 

split 

spoil 

spoilt,  R.* 

spoilt,  R.* 

spread 

spread 

spread 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

stand 

stood 

stood 

stave 

stove,  R."^ 

stove,  R.* 

stay 

staid,  R.* 

staid,  R  * 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

stick 

stuck 

stuck 

sting 

stung 

stung 

stride 

strode 

stridden 

strike 

struck 

j  struck 
(  stricken 

string 

strung 

strung 

strive 

strove 

striven 

282     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Pa/rticijple. 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

sweat 

sweat,  K. 

sweat,  R.* 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

swell 

swelled 

swollen,  R.* 

swim 

j  swam 
(  swum 

swum 

swing 

swung 

swung 

take 

took 

taken 

teach 

taught 

taught 

tear 

tore 

torn 

tell 

told 

told 

think 

thought 

thought 

thrive 

throve,  R. 

thriven,  R. 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

tread 

trod 

j  trod 
( trodden 

wake 

woke,  R.* 

woke,  R.* 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

wove 

woven 

weep 

wept 

wept 

wet 

wet,  E* 

wet,  R.* 

whet 

whet,  R  * 

whet,  R.* 

will 

would 

win 

won 

won 

wind 

wound 

wound 

work 

wrought,  R.* 

wrought,  R.* 

wring 

wrung 

Avrung 

write 

wrote 

written 

A  STUDY  OF  ''SNOW-BOUND.''  283 


CHAPTER    LXXXII. 
A  STUDY  OF  "SNOW-BOUND." 

"  Snow-Bound  "  is  a  poem  which  school  children  always 
read  with  pleasure.  It  is  a  picture  of  the  thoughts,  the 
reforms,  the  scenes  of  a  Kew  England  that  lies  almost  dimly 
behind  us.  It  is  rich  in  reflections  on  life  and  change,  and 
in  expressions  of  faith  and  hope — reflections  and  expressions 
which  John  Bright  said  are  unexcelled  in  any  poem  in  the 
English  language. 

The  class  should  first  read  the  poem  through  for  the 
story.  This  reading  is  not  made  critical,  but  references  are 
looked  up  and  such  explanations  are  given  as  are  needed  to 
make  the  meaning  of  the  lines  clear  to  the  pupil.  It  is  the 
second  and  critical  reading  that  should  be  used  to  bring 
out  the  full  meaning  of  the  poem,  to  develop  insight  and  to 
uncover  riches  that  the  first  reading  fails  to  disclose.  To 
this  reading  should  be  given  all  the  riches  of  information, 
all  the  thoughts  and  suggestions  that  the  poem  may  inspire. 
And  then  may  be  made  a  full  analysis  like  the  following — 
and  when  we  have  so  analyzed  it  the  poem  is  ours : 
Title,  "  Snow-Bound." 

Mottoes,  Extracts  from  Cornelius  Agrippa's  Occult 
Philosophy,  and  from  Emerson's  "  The  Snow 
Storm." 
Description  of  the  snow  storm,  lines  1-115, 
The  signs  of  its  coming,  lines  1-18, 
The  falling  of  the  snow,  lines  31-46, 


284     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  appearance  of  the  unbroken  snow,  lines  47-65, 

The  digging  of  the  path,  lines  6Y-80, 

The  solitude  made  by  the  snow  storm,  lines  97-115. 

The  building  of  the  fire,  lines  116-142, 

A  picture — The  moon  shining  upon  the  snow,  lines 

143-154, 
A  picture — The  hearth. 

Eetrospective  and  reflective,  lines  175-211. 

The  fireside  amusements. 

Stories  told  by  the  father,  lines  224-255, 
Stories  told  by  the  mother,  lines  256-305, 
Stories  told  by  the  uncle,  lines  333-349, 
Stories  told  by  the  aunt,  lines  360-365, 
Stories  told  by  the  schoolmaster,  lines  446-447. 

Portraits : 

The  father,  lines  66-7,  and  from  his  stories. 

The  mother,  from  her  stories. 

The  uncle,  lines  307-349. 

The  aunt,  lines  350-377. 

The  elder  sister,  lines  378-385. 

The  younger  sister,  lines  393-397. ' 

The  schoolmaster,  lines  438-485. 

The  guest,  lines  510-562. 
Reminiscent  and  reflective,  lines  400-437. 
Reflective,  lines  485-509. 
Reflective,  lines  563-589. 
The  close  of  the  evening,  lines  590-613. 
The  night,  lines  614-628. 
The  breaking  of  the  roads,  lines  629-656. 


A  STUDY  OF  "  SNOW-BOUNDr  285 

Snow-bound  no  longer,  lines  656-714. 
Keflective,  lines  715-759. 

The  allusions : 

"A  Chinese  roof,"  line  62. 

"  Pisa's  leaning  miracle,"  line  65. 

"  Aladdin's  wondrous  cave,"  line  77. 

"  Egypt's  Amun,"  line  90. 

"  The  chief  of  Gambia's  golden  shore,"  line  215. 

"  Dame  Mercy  Warren,"  line  219. 

"  St.  Fran9ois's  hemlock  trees,"  line  229. 

"  Cocheco  town,"  line  259. 

"  Painful  Sewell's  tome,"  line  286. 

"  Chalkley's  Journal,"  line  289. 

"The  child  of  Abraham,"  line  305. 

"  Apollonius  of  old,"  line  320. 

"  Hermes,"  line  322. 

"  Surrey's  hiUs,"  line  331. 

"  White  of  Selbourne,"  line  332. 

"Pindus  born  Aracthus,"   line  475.     (Why  is  Araxes 

^VTong  ?) 
"  Dread  Olympus,"  line  478. 
"  Petruchio's  Kate,"  line  536. 
"  Sienna's  saint,"  line  537. 
"  Calvin's  creed,"  line  669. 
"  Ell  wood's  meek,  drab-skirted,  muse,"  line  683. 
"  The  heathen  nine,"  line  684. 
"  Ypsilanti's  Mainote  Greeks,"  line  697. 
"  Flemish  pictures,"  line  746. 

After  such  careful  reading,  the  poem  may  be  used  in 


286     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAM3fAR. 

composition  work.  While  the  poem  suggests  many  sub- 
jects, it  is  better  to  base  the  written  work  upon  very  few 
themes,  and  to  treat  each  of  these  with  much  care.  A  few 
subjects,  with  suggestions  for  their  treatment,  are  given 
herewith : 

A  New  England  Snow  Storm. 

In  preparation  for  writing  on  this  subject  we  need  to 

read  and  discuss  not  only  the  description  of  the  storm  in 

this  poem,  but 

Emerson's  "  The  Snow  Storm,"  in  full. 

Parts  of  Lowell's  essay,    "A  Good  Word  for 

Winter," 

"  The  Pageant,"  by  Whittier, 

and  "  The  Frost  Spirit,"  by  Whittier. 
Plan  : 

The  signs  of  the  coming  storm, 

The  beginning  of  the  storm. 

The  beauty  of  the  snowflakes, 

A  picture  of  the  earth  clothed  with  snow. 

Its  forms  of  grace, 

Its  fantastic  shapes. 

The  footprints  of  the  wind  in  the  snow, 

The  tracks  of  little  animals, 

The  snow  that  falls  damp  from  windless  skies. 

The  storm  that  is  driven  by  the  north  wind. 

The  beauty  of  Nature  in  her  snowy  garments, 

A  walk  through  a  snow-robed  forest. 

Snow  as  a  blanket  over  the  earth. 

What   resemblance   do   you   find   between   the  concluding 

lines  of  the  second  division  descriptive  of  the  fall  of  the  snow 


A   STUDY  OF  ''  SNOW-BOUND."  287 

and  the  lines  quoted    from  Emerson's  "The  Snow  Storm"? 

What  differences  ?    Which  is  the  more   accurate  ?    Which  is 

the  more  vigorous  ?    How  long  did  the  falling  of  the  snow 

last  ?     Compare  Emerson's  description  of  the  masonry  of  the 

north  wind    with   Whittier's    description   of  the    marvellous 

shapes  wrought  by  the  snow.     Whittier  wrote  to  a  friend  in 

1885  :  "  I  think  '  The  Pageant '  is  the  best  snow  picture  I  have 

ever  made,   a  good  deal  more  artistic  than  'Snow-Bound.'" 

Why? 

The  Whittier  Home. 

What  lines  in  the  poem  give  us  any  suggestions  about 
the  house  or  its  surroundings  ?  lines  55-65,  81,  120  et  seq., 
590  et  seq.,  615,  635. 

What  passages  tell  us  of  the  home  habits  ?  the  reading  ? 

Situation  of  the  house,  its  history,  description,  plan  of 

the  house  and  the  kitchen,  the  guests  that  have  been  within 

its  walls,  etc.,  etc. 

The  Portraits. 

Compare  the  characters  of  the  father  and  mother. 
Compare  the  portraits  of  the  two  sisters. 
What  member  of  the  family  group  is  not  sketched  ? 
Compare  the  vivid  portrait  of  the  schoolmaster  with 
the  one  described  in  Goldsmith's  "Deserted  Village. " 
Harriet  Livermore  and  Lady  Hester  Stanhope. 

See  "  Gleanings  from  the  Merrimack  Yalley, 
Sheaf  Number  One,"  by  Kebecca  I.  Davis, 
and  Kinglake's  "  Eothen." 
Does  the  main  interest  of  this  poem  lie  in  the  description 
of  the  storm,  or  of  those  who  were  snow-bound  ? 

What  does  the  poem  teach  us  of  the  religious  faith  of  the 
author  ? 


288     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER  LXXXIII. 
A  STUDY  OF  "THE  VISION  OF  SIR  LAUNFAL" 
Order  of  study : 

I.  The  story  of  how  the  poem  was  written. 

It  was  written  by  James  Russell  Lowell  in  the  freshness 
of  the  new  year,  1848,  and  in  a  state  of  mental  activity  and 
exaltation  so  exuberant  that  the  poem  was  created  within 
forty-eight  hours,  the  poet  scarcely  eating  or  sleeping  during 
that  time.  It  was  published  in  December  of  that  year  and 
met  with  immediate  favor. 

See,  in  "  Letters  of  James  Russell  Lowell,"  page  148,  his 
letter  to  C.  F.  Briggs,  containing  the  poet's  own  appreciation 
of  this  poem. 

II.  While  the  poem  has  as  its  theme  a  subject  borrowed 
from  the  Arthurian  legends,  its  story  is  not  based  upon  any 
old  tale;  it  is  the  poet's  own  invention,  "a  picture  of 
mediaeval  knightly  quest  set  in  a  frame  of  ISTew  England 
scenery."  It  is  well,  however,  to  study  somewhat  the  story 
of  "  The  Holy  Grail "  before  reading  Lowell's  poem.  The 
following  books  are  of  value  to  one  who  wishes  to  make  a 
study  of  the  Arthurian  legend : 

Tennyson :  His  Art,  etc. — Stopford  A.  Brooke. 
The  Arthurian  Epic. — S.  Humphreys  Gurteen. 
Essays  on  Tennyson's  "  Idylls  of  the  King." — H.  Little- 
dale. 

The  Holy  Grail,  and  Sir  Galahad. — Tennyson. 


A   STUDY  OF  ''THE   VISION  OF  SIR  LAUNFAL^     289 

III.  The  reading  of  the  poem  for  the  story,  with  such 
explanations  merely  as  shall  make  the  story  and  text  clear. 

IV.  The  analysis,  as  in  "  Snow-Bomid  " — the  pupils 
making  the  summary. 

Such  a  summary  is  the  following : 

Picture — An  organist  improvising  a  theme,  which  at 
first  is  vague  and  indistinct,  but  which  gradually  acquires 
plan  and  purpose,  lines  1-8. 

Our  blinded  and  downcast  eyes  prevent  our  seeing  the 
nearness  of  heaven,  lines  9-12. 

The  voices  of  Nature  to  man,  lines  13-20. 

Earth,  material  things,  demand  a  price  before  they 
become  ours ;  but  the  beauty  of  Nature,  the  gifts  of  heaven, 
spiritual  things,  are  ours  for  the  asking,  lines  21-32. 

The  bounteous  delights  of  June,  and  the  high-tide  of 
the  year,  lines  32-79. 

Its  influence  on  the  heart  of  man,  and  on  Sir  Launfal, 
lines  80-95. 

Sir  Launfal  declares  his  quest,  lines  96-105. 

He  sleeps  and  there  comes  to  him  a  vision,  lines  105-108. 

The  droAvsy  warmth  of  summer  besieges  in  vain  the 
chilly,  churlish  castle  that 

'^ — alone  in  the  landscape  lay 
Like  an  outpost  of  winter,  dull  and  gr&y," 
lines  109-120. 

Summer  compared  to  a  besieging  army,  lines  121-127. 
19 


290     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRA3IMAR. 

Sir  Launfal  goes  forth  on  his  quest,  lines  128-139. 

Contrast  between  the  brightness  of  the  season  and  the 
gloom  of  the  castle,  lines  140-146. 

At  the  gate  Sir  Launfal  meets  a  leper  who  is  repulsive 
to  him,  but  he  gives  him  gold  from  a  sense  of  duty,  and  the 
leper  declines  the  gift,  lines  147-159. 

The  teaching  of  the  leper,  lines  160-1 Y3. 

Description  of  winter  and  the  building  of  the  little 
brook's  house,  lines  1Y4-210. 

The  joy  and  laughter  within  the  hall,  lines  211-225. 

Sir  Launfal,  shelterless,  is  driven  away  from  his  own 
porch,  lines  226-239. 

The  bleakness  of  winter,  lines  240-249. 

Sir  Launfal,  turned  away  from  his  earldom,  does  not 
bemoan  his  loss,  for  he  has  learned  wisdom  and  patience 
through  suffering,  lines  250-257. 

In  the  cold  he  muses  on  the   scenes  of  the  past,  lines 

258-272. 

From  this  reverie  he  is  roused  by  the  begging  of  the 
leper,  lines  273-279. 

He  recognizes  in  the  beggar  the  image  of  Christ,  and 
gives  to  him  in  the  name  of  Christ,  lines  280-287. 

The  leper  recognizes  in  him  the  same  knight  who  threw 
gold  so  haughtily  to  him  before,  but  the  spirit  of  his  giving 
now  turns  the  mouldy  crust  to  wheaten  bread,  and  the 
water  to  red  wine,  lines  '288-301. 


A   STUDY  OF  ''THE    VISION  OF  SIR  LAUNFAL."     291 

Then  Sir  Launfal  sees  the  leper  transformed  to  Christ 
himself,  lines  302-309. 

The  second  lesson  of  the  leper,  lines  310-327. 

Sir  Launfal  knows  that  the  Holy  Grail,  the  gift  that 
makes  men  see  the  glories  of  the  spiritual  kingdom,  may  be 
found  in  his  own  castle,  lines  328-329. 

That  mail  stronger  than  steel — the  armor  of  pure  pur- 
pose, unselfish  charity,  and  sympathy — must  be  his  who 
v^rould  find  the  Holy  Grail,  lines  330-334. 

The  castle  gate  is  thrown  open,  and  the  wanderer  is  wel- 
comed, lines  335-336. 

Summer's  long  siege  is  over,  and  where  gloom  reigned 
before,  there  she  "  lingers  and  smiles  the  whole  year  round," 
lines  337-347. 

y.  study  for  their  exquisite  descriptions  of  nature,  and 
memorize,  the  preludes  of  the  first  and  second  parts. 

The  first  prelude  is  a  fit  symbol  for  the  fresh  life,  the 
youth  and  strength,  of  the  young  knight.  IS'ot  yet  has 
experience,  like  the  summer  of  the  year,  ripened  the  heart 
into  mellowness.  Youth  is  self-confident;  it  gives  from 
what  it  has,  not  from  what  it  is.  It  is  not  introspective ; 
the  passing  sight,  the  surface  show,  attract  or  repel.  It  is 
a  joy  and  delight  in  what  it  is ;  it  is  radiant,  glomng.  Its 
quest  lies  before  it,  far  in  the  future ;  the  treasure  of  life 
is  to  be  found  in  some  far-off  time,  some  distant  land.  It 
may  throw  a  crust  to  the  beggar,  but  it  has  with  him  no 
common  experiences  in  suffering  to  cause  it  to  give  sym- 
pathy with  its  alms. 


292     THE  ESJSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

The  teacher  should  dwell  upon  the  poet's  choice  of 
language.  Every  word  fits  exquisitely,  and  fairly  overflows 
with  meaning.  Read  the  description  of  June  in  "Under 
the  Willows,"  and  notice  the  difference  of  treatment ;  or, 
rather,  how  infinite  are  the  riches  of  this  month  when  a 
poet  discloses  them  to  us. 

In  the  prelude  to  the  second  part,  we  are  introduced  to 
winter — the  old  age  of  the  year;  the  clod  no  longer  feels 
the  stir  of  might ;  blossom  and  tree  no  longer  clothe  the 
earth  with  their  varied  and  brilliant  hues.  The  snow  that 
hides  all  bespeaks  purity  and  peace.  Yet  winter  has  its  ac- 
tivities. The  season  of  youthful  confidence  of  Sir  Launfal 
is  over ;  the  rime  of  winter  is  in  his  hair,  the  badge  of  the 
poor  and  suffering  he  wears  deep  in  his  soul.  IN'ot  all  his 
search  has  brought  him  the  Holy  Grail,  but  confidence  has 
been  replaced  by  content,  pride  has  yielded  to  patient  humil 
ity.  He  sees  no  longer  in  the  wretched  leper  the  beggar  in 
need  of  food,  but  the  brother,  as  all  men  are  brothers,  the 
image  of  Him  who  died  on  the  tree. 

So  the  gift  that  without  the  giver  was  bare,  becomes  now, 
when  given  aright,  the  bread  and  the  wine  that  satisfy  the 
suffering  soul ;  nay,  more,  it  makes  Christ  himself  look  out 
of  the  eyes  of  the  one  fed.  And  the  voice  that  was  calmer 
than  silence  says : 

"  The  holy  supper  is  kept  indeed 
In  whatso  we  share  with  another's  need : 
Who  gives  himself  with  his  alms  feeds  three — 
Himself,  his  hungering  brother,  and  Me." 


THE   USE  OF  PUNCTUATION  MARKS.  293 

In  the  "  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,"  the  poet's  delight  in 
Nature  is  exuberantly  visible.  It  covers  the  simple  story 
with  such  a  rich  growth  of  vine  and  bloom  that  the  theme 
is  almost  lost  to  sight ;  we  reach  down  through  a  mass 
of  summer  blooms,  or  our  hands  are  filled  with  the  crystal 
jewels  of  winter,  when  Ave  search  for  the  lessons  of  the 
j)oem. 

In  the  work  with  the  class  the  poem  is  not  for  compo- 
sition work.  Its  value  is  for  developing  insight  and  spir- 
ituality ;  for  the  teaching  of  the  highest  morals ;  and  for 
impressing  upon  pupils,  in  their  most  impressible  years,  what 
the  poet  does  for  us ;  for  his  genius  does  what  the  crafts- 
man's art  does  for  the  diamond — ^it  takes  the  plain  facts,  the 
simple  truths,  and  so  glorifies  them  that  they  gleam  and 
flash  with  a  beauty  and  a  light  that  is  both  fascinating  and 
elusive. 

CHAPTER   LXXXIV. 
THE    USE    OF  PUNCTUATION    MARKS. 

The  Period.    A  period  is  used  : 
I.     At  the  end  of  every  sentence  that  is  not  interrog- 
ative or  exclamatory. 

II.     After  an  abbreviation. 
III.     Before  a  decimal  fraction. 

The  Com/ma.     A  comma  is  used : 
I.     To  indicate  the  smallest  interruptions  in  continuity 
of  thouglit  or  grammatical   construction,  the  marking  of 
which  contributes  to  clearness  {Cent.  Diet). 


394     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

II.     To  separate  the  names  of  persons  from  titles  or 
abbreviations  of  titles  following. 

III.     In  writing  numbers,  to  separate  the  periods — thou- 
sands from  hundreds,  millions  from  thousands,  etc. 

The  Semicolon.     A  semicolon  is  used  : 
To  mark  a  division  in  a  sentence  too  distinct  or  inde- 
pendent to  be  marked  by  a  comma. 

The  Colon.     A  colon  is  used  : 
I.     After  the  salutation  in  a  letter. 
II.     After  an  introductory  word  or  clause  followed  by 
a  statement  of  particulars,  or  by  illustrations  of  its  meaning. 
III.     After  a  clause  introductory  to  the  quotation  of  a 
long  sentence,  a  number  of  short  sentences,  or  a  separate 
paragraph. 

The  Interrogation  Point. — The  interrogation  point  is  used: 
After  every  complete  direct  question. 

The  Exclamation  Point. — The  exclamation  point  is  used : 
I.     After  an  interjection  used  independently. 
II.     After  a  sentence  beginning  with  an  interjection. 
III.     After  a  sentence  that  is  purely  exclamatory,  or  that, 
being  an  invocation  or  command,  denotes  deep  feeling  or 
great  earnestness. 

The  Apostrophe. — The  apostrophe  is  used  : 
I.     To  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  at  the  beginning, 
within,  and,  sometimes,  at  the  end  of  a  word. 
II.     To  denote  the  possessive  case. 
III.     Before  s  in  forming  the  plural  of  a  letter  or  a  figure. 


THE   USE  OF  PUNCTUATION  MARKS.  295 

Quotation  Mai^ks. — Quotation  marks  are  used : 

I.     To  inclose  a  direct  quotation. 
A  quotation  within  a  quotation  has  single  quotation 
marks,  and  if  there  be  a  quotation  within  this  inner  quota- 
tion it  has  the  double  marks. 

II.  Commonly  the  titles  of  books,  essays,  etc.,  when 
used  in  sentences,  are  inclosed  by  quotation  marks ;  but  some- 
times they  are  printed  in  italics  instead  of  being  so  inclosed. 

The  Parenthesis  am.d  the  Bracket. — A  parenthesis  is  used : 
I.     To  inclose  an  explanatory  or  qualifying  clause,  sen- 
tence, or  paragraph,  inserted  in  another  sentence  without 
being  grammatically  connected  with  it  {^Cent.  Diet.). 

A  bracket  is  used : 
II.  To  inclose  a  word,  phrase,  clause,  or  sentence,  in- 
serted within  a  sentence  or  paragraph,  but  not  explaining  or 
qualifying  the  context.  Its  use  is  mainly  to  inclose  correc- 
tions, missing  words,  or  some  added  statement  that  does  not 
affect  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  or  paragraph. 

The  Dash. — The  dash  is  used : 
I.     To  mark  a  sudden  transition  or  break  of  continuity 
in  a  sentence,  more  marked  than  that  indicated  by  a  comma 
{Cent.  Diet.). 

II.    To  inclose  a  parenthetical  clause  that  is  more  closely 
related  to  the  sentence  than  parentheses  would  indicate. 
III.     To  mark  omissions. 

A  dash  should  rarely  be  used  after  another  punctuation 
point. 


296     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 


CHAPTER     LXXXV. 
SELECTIONS  FOR  DICTATION,  PARSING,  ANALYSIS,    ETC. 

1.  Duty  and  to-day  are  ours. 

2.  I  pray  Thee,  God,  that  I  may  be  beautiful  within. — 
Plato. 

3.  Thou  must  be  true  thyself  if  thou  the  truth  would 
teach. 

4.  The  prayer  of  Seneca's  pilot  was :  "  O  Neptune,  you 
may  save  me  if  you  will ;  you  may  sink  me  if  you  will. 
But  whether  you  save  me  or  sink  me,  I  must  keep  my 
rudder  true." 

5.  Idle  gossip  is  like  a  pinch  of  lampblack:  there  is 
apparently  no  limit  to  the  blackening  that  it  may  do. 

6.  It  is  sometimes  discouraging  to  tell  the  truth  only 
to  discover  that  you  are  not  believed.  But  Time  reveals 
truth  as  well  as  falsehood. 

7.  "The  King 

Sent  to  him,  saying,  'Arise  and  help  us  there ! ' " 

8.  "  Along  the  roadside,  like  the  flowers  of  gold 

The  tawny  Incas  for  their  gardens  wrought, 
Heavy  with  sunshine  droops  the  goldenrod." 

9.  To  the  far  woods  he  wandered,  listening. 
And  heard  the  birds  their  little  stories  sing 

In  notes  whose  rise  and  fall  seemed  liquid  speech. 

— George  Eliot. 

10.  A  ray  of  light  may  give  glory  to  the  most  common 
thing — a  pool  of  water,  a  brown  bare  bough,  a  grain  of 


SELECTIONS  FOR  DICTATION,   PARSING,  ETC.        297 

dust :  so  love  may  give  glory  to  the  most  common  action. 
And  there  is  this  difference  between  the  service  that  we 
perform  from  the  sense  of  obligation  and  the  service  that 
we  perform  from  the  impulse  of  love — that  the  first  is 
dull  and  sombre,  and  the  second  is  sun-illumined  and 
glorious. 

11.  The  life  of  a  river,  like  that  of  a  human  being,  con- 
sists in  the  union  of  soul  and  body,  the  water  and  the  banks. 
They  act  and  react  upon  each  other.  The  stream  makes  and 
moulds  the  shore ;  hollowing  out  a  bay  here,  and  building  a 
long  point  there ;  alluring  the  little  bushes  close  to  its  side, 
and  bending  the  tall,  slim  trees  over  its  current ;  sweeping 
a  rocky  ledge  clean  of  everything  but  moss,  and  sending  a 
still  lagoon  full  of  white  arrowheads  and  rosy  knot-weed  far 
back  into  the  meadow.  The  shore  guides  and  controls  the 
stream ;  noAV  detaining  and  now  advancing  it ;  now  bending 
it  in  a  hundred  sinuous  curves,  and  now  speeding  it  straight 
as  a  wild  bee  on  its  homeward  stretch;  here  hiding  the 
water  in  a  deep  cleft  overhung  with  green  branches,  and 
there  spreading  it  out,  like  a  mirror  framed  in  daisies,  to  re- 
flect the  sky  and  the  clouds ;  sometimes  breaking  it  with 
sudden  turns  and  unexpected  falls  into  a  foam  of  musical 
laughter,  sometimes  soothing  it  into  a  sleepy  motion  like  the 
flow  of  a  dream. 

—From  "  Little  Rivers,"  by  Henry  Van  Dyke. 

12.  Kich  gift  of  God !  a  year  of  time  1 

What  pomp  of  rise  and  shut  of  day, 
What  hues  wherewith  our  northern  clime 
Makes  autumn's  drooping  woodlands  gay. 


298     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

What  airs  outblown  from  ferny  dells, 
And  clover  blooms  and  sweetbrier  smells, 
What  songs  of  brooks  and  birds,  what  fruits  and  flowers, 
Green  woods,  and  moonlit  snows,  have  in  its  round  been 
ours ! 

And  I  will  trust  that  He  who  heeds 

The  life  that  hides  in  mead  and  wold. 
Who  hangs  yon  alder's  crimson  beads, 

And  stains  these  mosses  green  and  gold, 
Will  still,  as  He  hath  done,  incline 
His  gracious  care  to  me  and  mine ; 
Grant  what  we  ask  aright,  from  wrong  debar, 
And,  as  the  earth  grows  dark,  make  brighter  every  star ! 
—Stanzas  VI.  and  XXVI.,  from  "  The  Last  Walk  in  Autumn," 
by  John  Greenleaf  WmTTiER. 

13.  The  last  hour  of  light  touches  the  birds  as  it  touches 
as.  When  they  sing  in  the  morning,  it  is  with  the  happi- 
ness of  the  earth;  but  as  the  shadows  fall  heavily  about 
them,  and  the  helplessness  of  the  night  comes  on,  their 
voices  seem  to  be  lifted  up  like  the  loftier  poetry  of  the 
human  spirit,  with  S3riiipathy  for  realities  and  mysteries  past 
all  understanding. 

A  great  choir  was  hymning  now.  On  the  tops  of  the 
sweet  old  honeysuckles,  the  catbirds;  robins  in  the  low 
boughs  of  maples  ;  on  the  high. limb  of  the  elm,  the  silvery- 
throated  lark,  who  had  stopped  as  he  passed  from  meadow 
to  meadow ;  on  a  fence  rail  of  the  distant  wheat-field,  the 
quail — and  many  another. 

— From  "A  Kentucky  Cardinal,"  by  James  Lane  Allen. 


SELECTIONS  FOR  DICTATION,  PARSING,    ETC.        399 

14.  Near  Cambridge  Coininoii  stands  an  old  elm,  bearing 
at  its  base  a  stone  with  the  inscription,  "  Under  this  tree 
Washington  first  took  command  of  the  American  Army, 
July  3,  1775."  Upon  the  one-hundredth  anniversary  of  this 
day,  the  citizens  of  Cambridge  held  a  celebration  there,  and 
Lowell,  the  poet,  read  a  poem,  "  Under  the  Old  Elm,"  of 
which  the  following  is  a  part : 

"Words  pass  as  wind,  but  where  great  deeds  were  done 

A  power  abides  transfused  from  sire  to  son : 

The  boy  feels  deeper  meanings  thrill  his  ear, 

That  tingling  through  his  pulse  lifelong  shall  run, 

With  sure  impulsion  to  keep  honor  clear. 

When,  pointing  down,  his  father  whispers,  "  Here, 

Where  we  stand,  stood  he,  the  purely  Great, 

Whose  soul  no  siren  passion  could  unsphere, 

Then  nameless,  now  a  power  mixed  with  fate." 

15.  For  full  two  hours  the  procession  of  boats,  borne  on 
the  current,  steered  silently  down  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
stars  were  visible,  but  the  night  was  moonless  and  suffi- 
ciently dark.  The  general  was  in  one  of  the  foremost  boats, 
and  near  him  sat  a  young  midshipman,  John  Eobinson, 
afterwards  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  He  used  to  tell  in  his  later  life  how  Wolfe, 
with  a  low  voice,  repeated  Gray's  "  Elegy  in  a  Country 
Churchyard  "  to  the  officers  about  him.  Probably  it  was  to 
relieve  the  intense  strain  of  his  thoughts.  Among  the  rest 
was  the  verse  which  his  own  fate  was  soon  to  illustrate : 

"  The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave." 


300     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

"  Gentlemen,"  he  said,  as  his  recital  ended,  "  I  would  rather 

have  written  those  lines  than  take  Quebec."     None  were 

there  to  tell  him  th«,t  the  hero  is  greater  than  the  poet. 

—Francis  Parkman. 

16.    November  woods  are  bare  and  still ; 

November  daj^s  are  clear  and  bright ; 
Each  noon  burns  up  the  morning's  chill ; 

The  morning's  snow  is  gone  by  night ; 
Each  day  my  steps  grow  slow,  grow  light, 

As  through  the  woods  I  reverent  creep. 
Watching  all  things  "  lie  down  to  sleep." 

I  never  knew  before  what  beds. 

Fragrant  to  smell  and  soft  to  touch. 
The  forest  sifts,  and  shapes,  and  spreads; 

I  never  knew  before  how  much 
Of  human  sound  there  is  in  such 

Low  tones  as  through  the  forest  sweep, 
When  all  wild  things  "lie  down  to  sleep." 

Each  day  I  find  new  coverlids 

Tucked  in,  and  more  sweet  eyes  shut  tight ; 
Sometimes  the  ^dewless  mother  bids 

Her  ferns  kneel  down  full  in  my  sight ; 
I  hear  their  chorus  of  "  good  night "  ; 

And  half  I  smile  and  half  I  weep, 
Listening  while  they  "  lie  down  to  sleep." 

November  days  are  bare  and  still ; 

November  days  are  bright  and  good ; 
Life's  noon  burns  up  life's  morning  chill ; 

Life's  night  rests  feet  which  long  have  stood ; 


SELECTIONS  FOR  DICTATION,   PARSING,   ETC.        301 

Some  warm,  soft  bed  in  field  or  wood 

The  mother  will  not  fail  to  keep 
Where  we  can  "  lay  us  down  to  sleep." 

—"Down  to  Sleep,"  by  H.    H. 

17.  The  torrents  of  Norway  leap  down  from  their  moun- 
tain homes  with  plentiful  cataracts,  and  run  brief  but 
glorious  races  to  the  sea.  The  streams  of  England  move 
smoothly  through  green  fields  and  beside  ancient,  sleepy 
towns.  The  Scotch  rivers  brawl  through  the  open  moor- 
land and  flash  along  steep  Highland  glens.  The  rivers  of 
the  Alps  are  born  in  icy  caves,  from  which  they  issue  forth 
with  furious,  turbid  waters ;  but  when  their  anger  has  been 
forgotten  in  the  slumber  of  some  blue  lake,  they  flow  down 
more  softly  to  see  the  vineyards  of  Italy  and  France,  the 
gray  castles  of  Germany,  and  the  verdant  meadows  of  Hol- 
land. The  Delaware  and  the  Hudson  and  the  Connecticut 
are  the  children  of  the  Adirondacks  and  the  White  Mountains, 
cradled  among  the  forests  of  spruce  and  hemlock,  playing 
through  a  wild  woodland  youth,  gathering  strength  from 
numberless  tributaries,  to  bear  their  great  burdens  of  lumber 
and  to  turn  the  wheels  of  many  mills,  issuing  from  hills  to 
water  a  thousand  farms,  and  descending,  at  last,  beside  new 
cities  to  the  ancient  sea.  —From  "Little  Rivers." 

18.  After  a  day  of  cloud  and  wind  and  rain 
Sometimes  the  setting  sun  breaks  out  again. 

And,  touching  all  the  darksome  woods  with  light, 
Smiles  on  the  fields,  until  they  laugh  and  sing. 
Then  like  a  ruby  from  the  horizon's  ring 

Drops  down  into  the  night.  —Longfellow. 


302     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 

19.  A  long  way  down  that  limpid  water,  chill  and 
bright  as  an  iceberg,  went  my  little  self  that  day  on  man's 
choice  errand — destruction.  All  the  little  fish  seemed  to 
know  that  I  was  one  who  had  taken  out  God's  certificate, 
and  meant  to  have  the  value  of  it ;  every  one  of  them  was 
aware  that  we  desolate  more  than  replenish  the  earth.  For 
a  cow  might  come  and  look  into  the  water,  and  put  her 
yellow  lips  down;  a  kingfisher,  like  a  blue  arrow,  might 
shoot  through  the  dark  alleys  over  the  channel,  or  sit  on  a 
dipping  withy-bough  with  his  beak  sunk  into  his  breast 
feathers ;  even  an  otter  might  float  down  the  stream,  liken- 
ing himself  to  a  log  of  wood,  with  his  flat  head  flush  to  the 
water  top,  and  his  oily  eyes  peering  quietly ;  and  yet  no  panic 
would  seize  other  life,  as  it  does  when  a  sample  of  man  comes. 

— From  "  Lorna  Doone,"  by  R.  D.  Blackmore. 

20.  Close  to  my  heart  I  fold  each  lovely  thing 

The  sweet  day  yields ;  and,  not  disconsolate, 
"With  the  calm  patience  of  the  woods  I  wait 
For  leaf  and  blossom  when  God  gives  us  Spring ! 
— ^From  "  A  Day,"  by  Whittier. 


CHAPTER    LXXXVI. 

SOME  COMMON  BUSINESS  FORMS  AND  LETTERS. 

The  best  way  to  impress  upon  pupils  the  correct  forms 
used  in  business  transactions,  is  to  procure  the  printed  forms 
used  by  business  houses  and  place  them  before  the  class  for 
study  and  for  copying. 


SOME  COMMON  BUSINESS   FORMS  AND  LETTERS.     303 

*  These  would  include  bill-heads,  blank  receipts,  telegram 
blanks,  and  such  forms  as  are  used  in  business  Avith  banks 
and  are  properly  connected  with  the  subjects  of  arithmetic 
and  bookkeeping.     A  few  forms  are  given  below. 


I. 


BILLS  AND  BILL-HEADS. 

The  form  of  a  bill-head  varies  somewhat,  according  to 
the  taste  of  the  firm  using  it.     Three  forms  are  given  below : 

1. 

F.  C.  Wilson  &  Company, 

Dealers  in  Groceries,  Fruits,  and  Comfits 

55  Merrimack  Street 

Kiverton,  Mass.,  February  23,  1899. 
Sold  to  Mr.  Richard  Eand, 


1  bbl.  Flour 
5  gals.  Kerosene 

3  lbs.  Coffee 

2  lbs.  Tea 

4  lbs.  Kuts 
1  doz.  Oranges 

3  lbs.  Candies        Cob.     .50        1     50      11      12 


1898 

Dec. 

18 

Dec. 

23 

Dec. 

29 

1899 

Jan. 

14 

20 

$ 

c. 

$ 

5 

25 

15 

Y5 

40 

1 

20 

Y5 

1 

50 

13 

52 

40 

40 

50 

1 

50 

11 

Received  Payment, 

F.  C.  Wilson  &  Co., 
by  A.  F.  W. 


304     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   GRAMMAR. 


2. 

Riverton,  Mass.,  March  1,  1899. 
Mr.  Frank  Howard 

Bought  of  Brooks  Bros. 

Dealers  in  Dry  Goods,  Oarpets,  etc. 


Here  follow  the  items 
arranged  as  in  the  Mil 
j[>receding. 


3. 


Riverton,  Mass.,  April  8,  1899. 


Mr.  Charles  F.  Clarke 

To  James  A.  Hale,  Bookseller,  Dr. 


Here  follow  the  items 
arranged  as  before. 

II. 
RENT  RECEIPT. 

cJlDtvettotif  (ylbadd,, B. \ i8g  ^ 

SleceiveJ  nf      €<W<^W.  3^n^v<xmA 

^4^^^^  g)nl.Ur,  jot 


cJoent  of 

iTUt 


\^^Y\y 


Sn<Ling^^MA}^_i8g9_ 


^(^tzeet  fat ^^      3montfi 


15. 


vlcuooo^    hjlAMyA.. 


SOME  COMMON  BUSINESS  FORMS  AND  LETTERS.     305 


III. 


Note  :  Every  business  letter  should  be  carefully  dated, 
aud  should  contain  the  full  address  of  the  sender  and  of  the 
firm  or  individual  to  whom  it  is  sent.  It  should  be  concisely 
written,  but  should  state  so  clearly  and  fully  the  subject  mat- 
ter as  to  allow  of  no  mistake  concerning  its  meaning.  The 
model  business  letter  has  three  characteristics — clearness,  con- 
ciseness, and  courtesy. 

1. 

An  Order. 

427  Washington  Street,  Kiverton,  Mass., 
August  1,  1899. 

Messrs.  Littl?],  Brown  &  Company, 

254  Washington  Street,  Boston,  Mass. 

My  dear  Sirs :    Please  send  me  by  the  American  Express, 
with  bill  by  mail : 

4  "Will  Shakespeare's  Little  Lad,"  Clarke. 
6  "  Lullaby  Land,"  Field. 

5  "  Border  Wars  of  Kew  England,"  Drake. 
5  "  The  Golden  Age,"  Grahame. 

4  "  A  Little  Girl  in  Old  Kew  York,"  Douglas. 

Yours  very  truly, 

William  Duncan. 

20 


306     THE  ESSENTIALS   OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

2. 

A  Reply. 

Little,  Brown  &  Company, 

Booksellers  and  Stationers, 

254  "Washington  Street, 

Boston,  Mass.,  August  2,  1899. 
Mk.  William  Duncan, 

427  Washington  St.,  Riverton,  Mass. 

My  dear  Sir :  We  this  day  send  you  books  by  American 

Express,   agreeable   to  your  kind  order   of    January  21st. 

We  have  not  in  stock  the  "  Lullaby  Land,"  but  will  send  it 

immediately  on  receipt  from  the  publishers,  to  whom  our 

order  for  it  has  been   sent.     We  inclose  bill  for  books 

forwarded. 

Yery  truly  yours, 

Little,  Brown  &  Company, 

by  A.  C.  F. 

3. 
An  Order. 

"Hillside  Cottage," 
Littleton,  New  Hampshire, 

December  15,  1898. 
Messrs.  Harper  &  Brothers, 
New  York,  E".  Y. 
My   dear  Sirs:   Please  find  inclosed   check   for   $9,  for 
which  send  the  following  publications  for  one  year  to  the 
addresses  given : 

1  "  Harper's  Monthly  Magazine  "  to  the 

ReV.  Arthur  Raymond, 
Elk  Rapids,  Antrim  Co.,  Michigan. 


SOME  COMMON  BUSINESS  FORMS  AND  LETTERS.     807 

1  "  Harper's  Weekly  "  to 

Mr.  Kalph  Gardiner, 

Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands. 
1  "  Harper's  Kound  Table  "  to 

Master  Frank  Madison, 

Jefferson,  New  Hampshire. 
Please  send  receipted  bill  with  each,   and  discontinue 
when  the  subscription  expires. 

Yery  truly  yours, 

Lewis  Percival. 
4. 

Advertisement. 

Wanted  :  A  young  man  of  good  education,  trustworthy, 
and  without  any  careless  habits,  as  clerk  in  a  grocery  store. 
Address  with  references  and  in  own  handwriting. 

The  Cleveland  Grocery  Co., 
731  Broad  Street,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

5. 

A  Reply. 

Rockport,  Ohio, 

August  26,  1899. 
The  Cleveland  Grocery  Co., 

Y31  Broad  Street,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
My  dear  Sirs :  In  answer  to  your  advertisement  in  the 
Cleveland  Daily  Journal  of  August  25,  I  respectfully  make 
application  for  the  position.  I  am  nineteen  years  old,  tall, 
strong,  and  of  good  health.  I  am  a  graduate  of  the  business 
department  of  the  Rockport  High  School,  have  no  bad  hab- 
its, and  am  desirous  of  securing  a  position  where  advance- 


308     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND  GRAMMAR. 

ment  will  be  possible.     I  refer  you,  by  their  permission,  to 

the  Rev.   Robert    Young,   pastor    of    the  Congregational 

Church ;  Mr.  Edwin  Shores,  principal  of  the  High  School ; 

and  Mr.  Willis  Mathews,  postmaster,  for  such  inquiries  as 

you  may  desire  to  make  about  me. 

Respectfully  yours, 

Francis  Lowell. 
6. 

An  Advertisement. 
Wanted  :  A  young  man,  eighteen  years  old,  strong,  and 
of  no  bad  habits,  a  graduate  of  an  excellent  grammar  school, 
desires  employment  in  some  manufactory.     References  fur- 
nished.    Address 

Clinton  R.  Floyd,  34  Everett  St.,  Riverton,  Mass. 


CHAPTER    LXXXVII. 
A  FEW  SOCIAL  FORMS. 

Under  "Social  Forms"  may  be  grouped  all  formal  let- 
ters and  notes,  invitations,  acceptances,  regrets,  excuses, 
letters  of  introduction,  etc. 

1. 
An  Invitation. 

Mr.   and  Mrs.  Chester  Rollins  request  the  pleasure  of 
Mr.    Sydney    Merrill's    company  for    Thursday    evening, 
November  3d,  at  eight  o'clock. 
"  The  Laurels," 

43  Chestnut  Lane, 
October  2nh. 


A  FEW  SOCIAL  FORMS.  309 

2. 

An  Acceptance. 

Mr.  Sydney  Merrill  accepts  with  pleasure  the  invitation 

of  Mr.   and   Mrs.    Chester  KoUins  for   Thui*sday  evening, 

November  3d. 

118  Woodland  Terrace, 

October  29th. 

3. 

Regrets. 

Mr.  Sydney  Merrill  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement 
for  the  same  evening  prevents  his  acceptance  of  the  kind 
invitation  of  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Chester  EoUins  for  Thursday 
evening,  November  3d. 

118  Woodland  Terrace, 

October  28th. 

4. 

An  Excuse  for  Absence. 

Will  Miss  Prince  kindly  excuse  the  absence  of  Henry  on 

Thursday  morning,  April  3d,  as  he  was  too  ill  to  attend 

school. 

(Mrs.)  Julia  A.  Harlow. 
2(>  Marion  Street, 

Friday  morning,  April  4th. 

5. 

A  Request  for  Dismissal. 

Will  Miss  Sherman  kindly  dismiss  Frances  from  school 

at  10.30  on  Friday  morning,  April  3d,  in  order  that  she  may 

accompany  her  mother  to  Cambridge. 

John  Russell. 
81  Hancock  Street, 

Thursday,  April  2d. 


310     THE  ESSENTIALS  OF  LANGUAGE  AND   ORAMMAIi. 


A  Letter  of  Introduction. 

36  Winthrop  Place, 

Riverton,  Massachusetts, 
June  1,  1898. 
Mr.  Edward  Dana, 

37  East  Fifty-third  Street, 
]!^ew  York. 
My  dear  Sir :  I  take  pleasure  in  introducing  to  you  the 
bearer  of  this  letter,  Mr.  Clement  Alden,  who  is  to  enter 
business  in  your  city.  He  is  a  young  man  of  excellent 
character,  of  superior  education,  and  of  refined  bearing. 
As  he  is  without  acquaintances  in  New  York,  such  advice, 
assistance,  or  personal  interest  as  you  may  be  able  to  give 
him  will  be  warmly  appreciated  by  him  and  by  me.  I  am, 
with  kind  remembrances. 

Yours  sincerely, 

Edwin  Millward. 


The  little  harque  has  reached  its  port, 

The  anchor^ s  dropped,  the  sail  isftcrled; 

Its  tenants  o'er  the  changeful  sea 
Swift  seeh  the  wider  world. 

What  hear  they  forth  f    Fullness,  we  trust, 

Of  grace  and  graciousness  of  speech : 

What  freight  of  Wisdom  it  convoyed, 

Or  Love,  helongs  to  each. 

—A.  L.  B. 


INDEX. 

The  Roman  Numerals  Refer  to  Chapters,  the  Arabic  to  Pages. 


A  and  an,  articles,  94. 
Abbreviations,  a  few  common, 
xi. 

how  to  read,  50. 

how  to  write,  50. 

of  days  of  week,  49. 

of  names  of  month,  44. 

of  titles,  49,  50. 
Abstract  nouns,  defined,  150. 
Active  voice,  defined,  250. 

of  infinitives,  256. 

of  participles,  259. 

of  verbs,  250. 
Address,   Nominative    case  by, 

128. 
Adjectives,  xxi. 

Appositive,  Iv.,  196. 

as  pronouns,  166. 

Careful  use  of  certain,  xxii. 

Choice  of,  96-98. 

Comparison  of,  Ivi. 
Regular,  199. 
Irregular,  200,  201. 

Classes  of,  92,  93. 

Clauses  as,  185. 

defined,  92,  93. 

Descriptive,  92. 

Designating,  92. 

Exercises  in  use  of,  95,  98. 

Limiting,  93. 

Modifiers  of,  203. 

Parsing  of,  Ivii. 

Predicate,  Iv.,  Ix.,  195. 
after  verbs  of   sensation, 
etc.,  Ix. 

Pronominal,  167. 


Adjectives,   List    of,   compared 
irregularly,  200,  201. 
Phrases  as,  179,  180. 
Adverbial  clauses,  186,  187. 
conjunctions,  205. 
objective,  143. 
phrase,  180,  181. 
Adverbs,  xxv.,  Ivii. 
Classes  of,  203,  205. 
Clauses  as,  186,  187. 
Comparison  of,  lix. 
Regular,  206. 
Irregular,  206. 
defined,  107,  204. 
List    of,   compared    irregu- 
larly, 206. 
Modal,  204. 
Modifiers  of,  204. 
modify  prepositional 

phrase,  205. 
Parsing  of,  207. 
Phrase,  207. 
Phrases  as,  180,  181. 
Position     of,     with     infini- 
tives, 255. 
Agreement  of  verb  with  subject 

nominative,  133. 
Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  48. 
Alliteration,  defined,  239. 
Alphabetical    list    of    irregular 

verbs,  Ixxxi. 
Analysis 

of  complex  sentences,  Ixvii. 
of  compound      "      232-233. 
of  simple  sentences,  Ixv. 
Sentences  for,  Ixix. 


812 


INDEX. 


Antecedents 

Cognate  objectives,  144. 

of  different  genders,  168. 

Collective  nouns,  149. 

of  different  numbers,  168. 

defined,  149. 

of  different  persons,  168. 

Verb  in  agreement  with,  149. 

of  pronouns,  defined,  167. 

as  antecedent  of  pronoun, 

two  or  more,  168. 

168. 

Antonyms,  27. 

Colon,  The  use  of,  294. 

Anybody  else's,  etc. ,  85. 

Comma,  The  use  of,  293. 

Apostrophe,  294. 

Common  gender,  88. 

Apposition,  defined,  146. 

Common  noun,  defined,  33. 

Appositive  use  of  adjectives,  196. 

Comparison 

of  nouns,  xxxviii. 

of  adjectives,  Ivi. 

Articles,  94. 

of  adverbs,  lix- 

definite,  94. 

defined,  198. 

indefinite,  94. 

Comparative  degree,  defined,  198. 

As— as,  so— as,  122. 

Complete  verb,  defined,  262. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  263. 

Complex  sentences,  Ixvi. 

defined,  262. 

Analysis  of,  Ixvii. 

Conjugation  of,  263-267. 

Order  of,  230-231. 

defined,  227. 

Be,  as  an  auxiliary  verb,  264. 

Complimentary  close  of  letters, 

Conjugation  of,  264r-267. 

61. 

Bracket,  The,  295. 

Composition  work,  Plans  for,  1. 

Business  Forms,  Ixxxvi. 

Model  for,  175,  176. 

Outlines  for,  177. 

Case, 

Subjects  for,  177. 

Nominative,  xxxiii. 

Compound  personal  pronouns, 

Objective,  xxxvi. 

112. 

of  nouns  in  apposition,  147. 

Compound  sentence,  Ixviii. 

Possessive,  xxxv. 

Analysis  of,  232-233. 

Chambered  Nautilus,  The,  193. 

Order  of,  232. 

Christian  names,  vii.,  36. 

defined,  231. 

Clauses,  li.-lii. 

Concrete  nouns,  defined,  150. 

as  adjectives,  185. 

Conjugation,  Ixxix. 

as  adverbs,  186,  187. 

defined,  262. 

Coordinate,  190. 

of  am  or  be,  264-267. 

defined,  178. 

of  auxiliary  verb,  263. 

as  nouns,  184. 

Emphatic  form  of,  268. 

Principal,  190. 

Interrogative  form  of,  268. 

Relative,  189. 

Progressive  form  of,  244- 

Subordinate,  190. 

246. 

INDEX. 


313 


of  shall  and  will,  263. 

Exclamatory  sentence,  defined, 

of  should  and  would,  264. 

17. 

of  have,  264. 

Expletive,  205. 

of  a  regular  verb  {love)^  269. 

Extracts  from 

Conjunctions,  xxx. 

A  Day  —  John  G.  Whittier, 

Adverbial,  205. 

302. 

Exercises  for  the  use  of,  121, 

The   Great   Stone    Face- 

122. 

Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  34. 

defined,  121. 

An    Island    Garden— Celia 

Parsing  of,  190. 

Thaxter,  76. 

Contractions,  50. 

A  Kentucky  Cardinal — 

Common,  51. 

James  Lane  Allen,  208. 

Exercises  in  the  correct  use 

The  Last  Walk  in  Autumn 

of,  51. 

—John  G.  Whittier,  208. 

Copula,  101. 

Lorna  Doone— R.  D.  Black- 

more,  302. 

Dash,  The,  295. 

Master  Skylark — John  Ben- 

Dates, The  writing  of,  43-45. 

nett,  125. 

Daudet's  Youth,  The  Story  of, 

The  Pageant  of  Summer — 

118. 

Richard  Jeffries,  20  L 

Days  of  week,  Abbreviations  of, 

The  Paradise  of  Children- 

49. 

Nathaniel       Hawthorne, 

Declarative    sentence,    defined, 

110. 

17. 

The  Sandpiper's  Nest— Celia 

Declension  of  pronouns,  xlviii. 

Thaxter,  77. 

Defective  verbs,  defined,  262. 

Slumber  Song— Celia  Thax- 

Definite article,  The,  94. 

ter,  117. 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  xlvi. 

Story  of  Daudet's  Youth,  118. 

defined,  165. 

Telling    the    Bees— Eugene 

Description ,   The  F  r  a  n  c  o  n  i  a 

Field,  130. 

Road,  34. 

Under  the  Old  Elm — James 

*'A  Country  Road,"  176. 

Russell  Lowell,  299. 

Descriptive  adjectives,  92. 

The  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal — 

Designating  adjectives,  92. 

James  Russell  Lowell, 

Dictionary  work,  Ixi.,  237,  238. 

xli.,  153,  154. 

Direct  quotations,  157. 

Wild  Geese— Celia  Thaxter, 

defined,  157. 

15. 

how  written,  157. 

Will    Shakespeare's    Little 

Lad— Imogen  Clarke,  142. 

Each  other,  172. 

The    Village    Blacksmith— 

Envelope,  how  addressed,  63. 

H.  W.  Longfellow,  91. 

314 


INDEX. 


Factitive  verbs,  140. 

Infinitive  forms,  Simple,  256. 

Feminine  gender,  88. 

Tenses  of,  256. 

First  division  of  a  sentence,  14. 

Voices  of,  256. 

Five  parts  of  a  letter,  xii. 

Interjection,  The,  xxi. 

Franconia  Eoad,  The,  34. 

defined,  128. 

Future  perfect  tense,  241. 

how  treated,  191. 

Future  tense,  240. 

What  it  expresses,  123. 

Interrogation     point,     use     of, 

Gender,  xix. 

294. 

Common,  88. 

Interrogative  form  of  the  verb, 

Feminine,  88. 

268. 

Forms  of,  of  certain  nouns. 

Conjugation  of,  268. 

88,  89. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  xliv. 

Masculine,  88. 

defined,  161. 

Neuter,  88. 

Interrogative  sentence,  defined. 

of  nouns,  xix. 

17. 

of  pronouns,  118. 

Irregular  comparison 

Government  of  nouns  and  pro- 

of adjectives,  200,  201. 

nouns,  142. 

of  adverbs,  206. 

Irregular  verbs, 

Have,  as  an  auxiliary  verb,  268. 

defined,  263. 

Conjugation  of,  264. 

List  of,  275. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  35. 

Hiawatha,  Story  from,  89. 

Lanier,  Sidney,  287. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  194. 

Letter,  A 

from  Phillips  Brooks,  52. 

Imperative  mode,  248. 

-Writing,  66. 

sentence,  defined,  17. 

Letters,  67-69. 

Indefinite  articles,  94. 

Abstracts  for,  63. 

Indefinite    forms  of    the   verb, 

Address  of,  56. 

244. 

Body  of,  59. 

Independent  possessives,  171. 

Complimentary  close  of,  61. 

Indicative  mode,  189. 

Heading  of,  55. 

Indirect  quotation,  defined,  157. 

how  folded,  64. 

should  and  ivould  in,  219. 

Model  for  arrangement  of, 

Infinitive  forms.  The,  Ixxvi. 

65. 

Compound,  256. 

The  Parts  of,  xii. 

defined,  254. 

Salutation  of,  57. 

omit  to  after  certain  verbs, 

Signature  to,  61. 

260. 

Subjects   for    body   of,    67- 

Parsing  of,  256. 

69. 

INDEX. 


315 


Like,  122. 

Number,  xiv. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  30. 

Plural,  defined,  70. 

how  formed,  70-76. 

Marjorie's  Almanac — T.  B. 

Ald- 

Singular,  defined,  70. 

rich,  30. 

Memory,  Poems  for  (see  Poems). 

Objective  case,  xxxvi.,  142. 

Model  forms  for 

adverbial,  143. 

analyses    of    sentences 

,    see 

Predicate,  140. 

Ixv.,  Ixvii.,  Ixviii. 

direct  object  of  verb,  137. 

compositions,  175,  176. 

of  preposition,  141. 

letters,  65. 

indirect   object    of    verb, 

Mode  of  verbs,  Ixxiii. 

139. 

defined,  248. 

Cognate,  144. 

Imperative,  248. 

subject  of  infinitive  forms. 

Indicative,  248. 

145. 

Subjunctive,  248. 

One    another,    when    to     use, 

Modifiei-s 

172. 

of  adjectives,  203. 

Opportunity— E.  R.  Sill,  274. 

of  adverbs,  204. 

of  clauses,  204. 

Paragraph, 

of  nouns,  92,  93. 

Model  for,  86. 

of  sentences,  204. 

Sentences  to  be  grouped  in, 

of  prepositions,  205. 

86,  87. 

of  verbs,  203. 

Parenthesis,  The,  295. 

Months,  The,  45. 

Parsing  (see  under  several  parts 

Abbreviations  for  the  names 

of  speech). 

of,  44. 

Participles,  Ixxvii. 
Active,  259. 

No,  modal  adverb,  204. 

Adverbial  force  of,  259. 

Nouns,  23,  27,  28. 

Compound,  259. 

Classes  of,  vi. 

defined,  257. 

Abstract,  150. 

Parsing  of,  260. 

Collective,  148,  149. 

Passive,  259. 

Common,  33. 

Simple,  259. 

Concrete,  150. 

as  verbal  adjectives,  257. 

Proper,  33. 

as  verbal  nouns,  258. 

Appositive  use  of,  xxxviii. 

Parts  of    a  sentence.    Two,    i., 

Parsing  of,  xl. 

13,  14. 

defined,  23. 

Passive  voice.  250, 

(See,  also,  under  Case, 

Gen- 

Past  perfect  tense,  242. 

der,  Number,  and  Person.) 

Past  tense,  240. 

316 


mDEX. 


Period,  The  use  of,  293. 

Possessive  case,  xxxv.,  134. 

Person,  110. 

form  of  nouns,  xvii. 

Personal    Pronouns    (see     Pro- 

of pronouns,  135,  136. 

noun). 

Independent,  171. 

Personification,  defined,  114. 

phrase,  when  preferred,  84. 

Phrase,  The,  li. 

Potential  verb  phrases,  Ixxxiii. 

Adjective,  179,  180. 

Predicate 

Adverb,  180,  181. 

of  a  sentence,  15,  223. 

defined,  178. 

verb,  223. 

Noun,  178,  179. 

Predicate  adjectives,  Iv. 

Participial,  183. 

after  verbs  of  sensation,  Ix. 

Possessive,  84. 

defined,  195. 

when  preferred,  84. 

Predicate  nominative,  131,  223. 

Prepositional,  183. 

Predicate  object,  140. 

Plural  number,  70. 

Prepositional  phrase,  183. 

of  nouns,  xiv.,  xv. 

Prepositions,  xxix. 

how  formed,  70-76. 

Careful  use  of,  119,  120. 

Poems  : 

defined,  116. 

The  Beggar — James  Russell 

Object  of,  141. 

Lowell,  29. 

Parsing  of,  190. 

Down     to     Sleep— H.     H., 

Present  perfect  tense,  241. 

300. 

Present  tense,  240. 

The  Chambered  Nautilus — 

Principal  clause,  190. 

Oliver  Wendell  Holmes, 

Principal  parts  of  a  verb,  262. 

191-194 

Progressive  forms  of  a  verb,  244. 

Marjorie's      Almanac — 

Pronouns, 

Thomas    Bailey    Aldrich, 

Antecedents  of,  167. 

30. 

Adjective,  166. 

The  Months,  45.     . 

Compound  personal,  171. 

Opportunity — Edward  Row- 

Declension of,  xlviii. 

land  Sill,  274. 

defined,  109. 

The  Sandpiper— Celia  Thax- 

Demonstrative,  172. 

ter,  80. 

Interrogative,  172. 

The  Sparrows — Celia  Thax- 

Indefinite,  172. 

ter,  20. 

Classified  list  of,  172. 

The  Song  of  the  Chattahoo- 

Independent possessive,  171. 

chee — Sidney  Lanier,  Ixx. 

Personal,  xxvi.,  xxvii.,  xlvii. 

Positive  degree 

Compound,  112,  171. 

of  adjectives,  198. 

Relative,  163-164. 

of  adverbs,  205,  206. 

Reciprocal  pronoun  phrases, 

defined,  198. 

172. 

INDEX. 


817 


Pronouns, 

Sentences,  Simple,  Ixiv. 

Parsing  of,  xlix. 

Two  parts  of,  13,  14. 

Sentences  for  the  study  of. 

defined,  222. 

xxviii. 

Shall  and  icill,  The  correct  use 

Proper  nouns,  33. 

of,  Ixii.,  219-220. 

Punctuation  marks.  The  use  of, 

Should  and  would.  The  correct 

Ixxxiv. 

use  of,  219-220. 

• 

in  indirect  quotations,  219. 
Signature  to  letter,  61. 

Quotation  marks,  157,  160, 

295. 

Sill,  Edward  Rowland,  275. 

Quotations,  xlvi. 

Simple  sentence,  Ixiv. 

defined,  157. 

Simple  tenses,  244. 

Direct,  157. 

Singular  number  (see  Number). 

Divided,  158. 

"  Snow-Bound,"  AStudyof,  283. 

How  to  write,  157. 

Social  Forms,  308. 

Indirect,  157. 

"Song  of    the    Chattahoochee, 
The,"  235. 

Reciprocal  pronoun  phrases 

,172. 

Somebody  else's,  etc.,  85. 

t  t   rn                                       ml            H    c\r\ 

Redundant  verbs,  defined, 

263. 

"Sparrows,  The,"  20. 

Regular  comparison 

Strong  verbs,  263. 
Subject, 

distinguished   from  subject 

of  adjectives,  199. 
of  adverbs,  206. 

Regular  verbs,  263. 

Conjugation  of,  269. 
Relative  pronouns,  xlv. 

nominative,  131,  223. 
nominative,  223. 
of  a  sentence,  15. 

defined,  164. 

of  infinitive,  145. 
Subjunctive  mode,  defined,  248. 
Conjugation  of,  266. 

Selections  for  study  and 

mem- 

Signs  of,  266. 

ory  (see   Poems  anc 

l  Ex- 

Subordinate  Clause,  190. 

tracts). 

Subjects 

Semicolon,  The  use  of,  294. 

for  compositions,  176-177. 

Sentences, 

for  letter-writing,  67-69. 

Analyses  of,  228-235. 

Superlative  degree,  defined,  198. 

Complex,  Ixvi. 

of  adjectives,  198. 

Compound,  Ixviii. 

of  adverbs,  206. 

Declarative,  17. 

how  formed,  199. 

Exclamatory,  17. 

Surnames,  vii. 

Imperative,  17. 

defined,  36. 

Interrogative,  17. 

Origin  of,  37. 

Kinds  of,  ii.,  17. 

Synonyms,  27. 

318 


INDEX. 


Tense,  Ixxi,,  Ixxii. 

Verbs, 

Future,  240. 

Emphatic  forms  of,  268. 

Future  perfect,  241. 

Factitive,  140. 

Past,  240. 

followed      by      preposition 

Past  perfect,  241. 

with  adverbial  force,  252. 

Present,  240. 

Intransitive,  252. 

Present  perfect,  241. 

Irregular,  263,  275.  ^ 

defined,  244-246. 

ITodes  of,  248. 

Conjugations  of,  244. 

Parsing  of,  Ixxx. 

Thaxter,  Celia,  22,  76. 

Person  and  number  of,  133. 

The,  article,  94. 

Progressive  forms  of,  242. 

There,  expletive,  205. 

Eedundant,  263. 

Titles  of  books,  essays,  etc. ,  how 

Eegular,  263. 

written,  xliii. 

followed  by  indirect  object. 

To-naraes,  38. 

139. 

Transitive  verbs,  252. 

of    sensation     followed    by 

Two  parts  of  a  sentence,  i.,  13, 14. 

predicate  adjectives,  208. 

Transitive,  252. 

Verb  phrases,  Potential,  Ixxviii. 

Tenses  of  (see  Tense). 

Verbs,  xxiii. 

Voices  of  (see  Voice). 

Agreement  with    subject 

Vision    of    Sir    Launfal,    The, 

nominative,  132. 

Ixxxiii. 

with    collective     noun, 

Voice,  Ixxiv. 

149. 

defined,  250. 

Auxiliary 

Active,  250. 

defined,  262. 

Passive,  250. 

List  of,  263. 

Conjugation     of,     263- 

Weak  verbs,  263. 

264. 

Words  as  parts  of  speech,  iii.. 

Conjugation  of,  269. 

22. 

Complete,  defined,  262. 

Little  Study  of,  A,  24. 

Correct  use  of  certain,  xxiv. 

Defective,  defined,  262, 

Yes,  modal  adverb,  204. 

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